10. Erev Rosh Ha-shana

As mentioned, in the time of the Rishonim, most Jews fasted on Erev Rosh Ha-shana (SA 581:2; MB ad loc.16), while today most do not. A few people still fast half the day or until plag ha-minḥa. Others give charity in place of fasting.

Ashkenazic custom is to recite many more Seliḥot on Erev Rosh Ha-shana than on other days. If Seliḥot begin before dawn, Taḥanun is recited at the end of the Seliḥot service. Even then, Taḥanun is not said following Shaḥarit, as Taḥanun is normally not recited on Erev Yom Tov. If Seliḥot begin after dawn, Taḥanun is not recited at the end of Seliḥot either (MB 581:23).^[5]

On Erev Rosh Ha-shana we do not blow the shofar, so as to distinguish the custom-based blasts of the month of Elul from the obligatory blasts of Rosh Ha-shana (SA 581:3; Levush). Some are stringent and do not even practice blowing the shofar on Erev Rosh Ha-shana. However, one who wants to practice may do so in a closed room (MA ad loc. 14; Eliya Rabba ad loc. 4; MB ad loc. 24).

Since Rosh Ha-shana is called a sacred occasion (mikra kodesh), we honor it as we do Shabbat and holidays. We prepare for it by cleaning the home, doing the laundry, showering, preparing festive meals, and setting the table nicely. If one needs a haircut or a shave, it is a mitzva to take care of it beforehand, in honor of the holiday (SA 581:1; below, 3:4).

As a good omen, in hopes that the upcoming year will be filled with abundance, it is customary to make particularly good and plentiful food for Rosh Ha-shana. To enable this, common practice was to slaughter many animals before Rosh Ha-shana, for the festive meals. In fact, Erev Rosh Ha-shana is listed in the Mishna as one of the four days of the year on which the most animals were slaughtered. Therefore, special care had to be taken to avoid slaughtering an animal and its offspring on the same day, which is forbidden (Ḥullin 83a).

Some have the custom of going to mikveh on Erev Rosh Ha-shana, to purify themselves in anticipation of the Day of Judgment (Rema 581:4). One who wishes to follow this custom but finds it difficult may wash with nine kavim (approximately 11 liters) of water instead (MB ad loc. 26). That is, he should stand in the shower while nine kavim of water streams down on him without interruption. He should ensure that this water comes into contact with his entire body (Peninei Halakha: Festivals 1:16 and n. 8).

It is customary to do hatarat nedarim (nullification of vows) on Erev Rosh Ha-shana. During the recitation, future vows are disclaimed as well (as we will explain below, 5:11-12).

11. The Ḥazan on the Days of Awe

The ḥazan plays a central role during the Days of Awe, since he leads the prayers. Sometimes the whole congregation recites the prayers along with him, while he sets the pace, and at other times he recites the prayers alone, serving as the representative of the congregation (shli’ah tzibur), while the congregation then responds with “amen” (such as during the repetition of the Amida and the recital of Kaddish). Thus, it is important to make sure that the ḥazan is worthy of this sacred task. He must be upright, meaning he should not be a sinner, and especially not a thief. He should have a good reputation and should not have been known as a wanton sinner even in his youth. He should be humble, and the congregation should be happy with him, as he is their representative. He should know how to recite the prayers with precision and should be someone who regularly studies Torah and rabbinic texts. He should know how to perform the proper melodies and should have a pleasant voice, as this allows him to honor his Creator and to engage the congregation, inspiring the people and improving their concentration. If they are unable to find someone who has all these virtues, they should choose the wisest and best person available (Ta’anit 16a; SA 53:4-5).

It is proper that the ḥazan be married, just as the Kohen Gadol had to be married, and that he be at least thirty years old, just as the Levites began to serve at the age of thirty (Rema 581:1). Someone dedicated to Torah who is young and single should be given preference over a thirty-year-old, married ignoramus. Even if the choice is between an older man who has a good voice and is well-liked but is ignorant, does not understand the prayers, and makes mistakes reciting them, or a youth of thirteen who does not know the melodies but understands the prayers, the youth is preferable. A long-standing ḥazan should not be replaced even if a better candidate is available, unless there is something specific which now disqualifies him (SA 53:25).

Depending on the circumstances, there may be additional qualities to look for in a ḥazan. For example, if a community is fasting because of a drought, it is proper to look for a ḥazan who is poor, who has young children whom he has difficulty feeding, and who works hard in the field, as the drought causes him great suffering. In general, if the congregation is praying due to some threat, it is good to choose a ḥazan who is personally affected by it, or a leader who truly feels the suffering of the congregation (Ta’anit 16a; MB 581:10).

During the time of the Sages, it was forbidden to write siddurim because it was only permitted to put the written Torah – the Tanakh – into writing. It was forbidden to write down any orally transmitted material, including prayers and blessings instituted by the Sages (Temura 14b). Therefore, it was necessary for a ḥazan to recite all the prayers out loud, in order to fulfill the prayer obligation of the people who did not know them by heart. Thus, a community would appoint a ḥazan for the entire year, making sure that he had all the virtues discussed above. According to Sefer Ḥasidim (§758; MB 581:10), anyone who helps get an unworthy ḥazan appointed deprives the congregation of a worthy advocate and will be called to account for it in the future.

Over the course of time, the Sages permitted writing down the Oral Torah. With the advent of the printing press, siddurim became widely available. It was no longer necessary to appoint a regular ḥazan for all the prayers, because everyone prayed from their own siddur. Therefore, a different ḥazan now leads each service, and we are not as particular about his qualifications.

Nevertheless, on the Days of Awe, when we are begging God to forgive our sins, deliver us from troubles, and hasten the redemption, a community should be careful to select a ḥazan who meets all the criteria mentioned above. This is especially important for the Musaf service, as it is during Musaf of Rosh Ha-shana that we blow the shofar, and it is during Musaf of Yom Kippur that we recite the Kohen Gadol’s avoda (Temple service). If someone knows that he is not fit to be a ḥazan, he should turn down the honor if approached, because heaven promptly punishes an unfit ḥazan for his sins (Eliya Rabba; MB 581:10).

Even if an unfit person is chosen, it is not appropriate to have a quarrel over it. First of all, a quarrel is a serious sin in its own right. Second, even on the Days of Awe, all have maḥzorim and need not rely on the ḥazan to fulfill their obligation (Ḥatam Sofer OḤ 205; MB 581:11).

It is extremely important for a ḥazan to have a pleasant voice and familiarity with the melodies, and to use them for the glory of God. He should not engage in flourishes to show off his voice. A ḥazan who arrogantly extends the prayers is addressed in the verse, “They roar at Me, so I hate them” (Yirmiyahu 12:8). But if he uses his sweet voice and pleasant melodies to make the prayers beautiful in order to honor God and help the congregation focus, he will be blessed and his reward will be great (Rashba; SA 53:11).

12. Praying Out Loud and Standing Up When the Ark Is Open

As a rule, the Amida is supposed to be recited quietly (Peninei Halakha: Prayer 17:7). However, on Rosh Ha-shana and Yom Kippur, there were those who recited the Amida out loud in order to improve their concentration. Even though it is not permissible during the rest of the year, as it may confuse other worshippers, this is not a concern on Rosh Ha-shana and Yom Kippur because everyone has a maḥzor (SA 582:9). Nevertheless, people should not pray too loudly, both to avoid disturbing other worshippers and to avoid appearing like the prophets of Ba’al, who screamed at their gods (Rema 101:3; MB ad loc. 12).

Another reason to recite the Amida quietly is its exalted nature, which dictates that it be kept private (MA OḤ 101:4; MB ad loc. 11). On the Days of Awe, it makes sense to be even more careful about this. Where almost everyone prays silently, as is the case in most congregations today, one may not pray out loud. Even though there is no concern that people will make mistakes, as they have maḥzorim before them, nevertheless, when one prays aloud, it distracts worshippers and disrupts their concentration.

As maḥzorim note, it is customary to open the ark during the recitation of certain prayers. At those times, it is customary for everyone to stand in order to give honor to the Torah, which is on display. However, according to the letter of the law, the obligation to stand is limited to the time when the Torah scroll is in motion. When it is stationary, whether in the ark or on the podium, one is not required to stand. Therefore, the elderly, the weak, and the sick, who find it difficult to stand up, may sit even while the ark is open. Nevertheless, when the Torah is in motion, they should make extra efforts to stand.^[6]

01. The Day of Remembrance and Judgment

Rosh Ha-shana is the day on which God creates the new year and grants new life to all His creations. It is a mysterious day, rooted in the transcendent, beyond time and place, and therefore everything about it is hidden and can only be glimpsed little by little. This is why one of its names is keseh, deriving from kisui, “cover.” It is the only holiday that coincides with the beginning of the month, when the obscured moon just begins to reappear (Rosh Ha-shana 8a). The practical manifestation of this hiddenness is that there is some uncertainty about when exactly Rosh Ha-shana is supposed to be. To alleviate this uncertainty, it was celebrated for two days. (See sections 7 and 8 below.)

Like other holidays, there is a mitzva to refrain from melakha on Rosh Ha-shana and to sanctify it through food, drink, and clean clothes. Its unique feature is the mitzva to turn it into a day of remembrance (zikaron) and blasts (teru’a). As we read:

The Lord spoke to Moshe, saying: “Speak to the people of Israel thus: ‘In the seventh month, on the first day of the month, you shall observe complete rest, a sacred occasion commemorated (zikhron) with loud blasts (teru’a). You shall not work at your occupations; and you shall bring an offering by fire to the Lord.’” (Vayikra 23:23-25)

Similarly, we read, “In the seventh month, on the first day of the month, you shall observe a sacred occasion: you shall not work at your occupations. You shall observe it as a day of blasts (yom teru’a)” (Bamidbar 29:1).

In the Amida and kiddush, Rosh Ha-shana is called the “Day of Remembrance” (Yom Ha-zikaron), because on this day God remembers His creations and renews their life for the upcoming year. The term “zikaron” (remembrance) in reference to God means that He comes to someone’s aid and grants them life. So that His kindness is not turned into wickedness by wicked people who would use it for evil, God ordained that blessing would be granted based on one’s deeds throughout the year. If one chooses good, he merits a shefa of goodness and blessing, whereas if he chooses evil (God forbid), the shefa of goodness is minimized, and the person consequently suffers much grief and pain. We see, therefore, that Rosh Ha-shana is a day of remembrance and judgment; God sits on His throne of judgment and appraises His world, judging each person individually and each nation collectively.

The primary judgment of the world hinges on the Jewish people and Eretz Yisrael, as the Jews are God’s people, the heart of the world, upon whom the repair of the world depends. Accordingly, the reward and punishment of the Jews is greater than that of other nations. God therefore judges the Jews first, and the judgment of mankind and the world in general is an outgrowth of this judgment (Rosh Ha-shana 8a-b; Ta’anit 10a). When we blow the shofar, recollections of us ascend to Him positively.

On the day that God remembers His creations, we, too, must awaken ourselves to remember what is most important and fundamental to us – faith in God, the Creator of the World – and, accordingly, to accept His divine yoke upon ourselves. Of course, it is always a mitzva to remember the foundations of faith. But on the day that God designated to recall His creations and judge their every action, for better or worse, we, too, must correspondingly contemplate His kingship, undertake piercing introspection, and resolve to better ourselves. This is the meaning of the commandment to make Rosh Ha-shana a “zikhron teru’a”: By remembering our faith and accepting the yoke of heaven, we tremble with the dread of judgment and the immensity of the responsibility we bear. And this is precisely how we are recalled before God in a positive light, mitigating the severity of judgment and increasing blessing in the world.

02. A Day of Teru’a

Because Rosh Ha-shana is a day of judgment, it is called “yom teru’a” (Bamidbar 29:1). While teki’a expresses joy and stability, teru’a alludes to brokenness, dread, crying, and radical change (4:1 below). Thus, Onkelos translates the phrase “yom teru’a” as “a day of wailing.”^[1]

Similarly, God instructed the Israelites in the desert to blow a teki’a on the trumpets when they needed to gather the people, as a teki’a expresses joy and togetherness. In contrast, when they needed to go out to war or leave their encampment and move on, they were instructed to blow a teru’a (Bamidbar 10:1-7), for a teru’a represents brokenness and crying over that which is finished but imperfect, and apprehension about what comes next. If this is the feeling that results from physical dislocation, how much greater is the apprehension surrounding Rosh Ha-shana – a time when a person’s allotted life for the past year has run out, and his life for the next year has yet to be allotted. It has yet to be determined who will live and who will die, who will enjoy tranquility and who will suffer. All is dependent upon the judgment.

Furthermore, intense apprehension fills the heart of all who are aware of the tremendous responsibility God tasked us with – sustaining and repairing the world. With fear and dread, each person takes stock of his internal landscape, evaluating whether he has carried out his mission or fallen short. Therefore, even though the sound of a teru’a is of short duration, the day in its entirety is referred to as yom teru’a – a day of brokenness and tears, fear and apprehension.

We are commanded to blow a shofar rather than a trumpet because the sound produced by the shofar better expresses the teru’a. It is a cri de coeur, a primal sound, a sound that precedes words and articulation, more primal than standard sighs or tears. Its sound has the power to express tremendous pain for all the lies, thieving, neglect, and wantonness; for the awful distance which separates a person from the Creator; for the vast chasm between our lofty aspirations and our mundane lives (Shlah, Masekhet Rosh Ha-shana, Torah Or §55).

This is the great mitzva that God commanded His people – to blow the shofar on Rosh Ha-shana, to express, with humility and modesty, their recognition of His kingship. It is precisely through the pain and wailing hinted at by the shofar blasts that all claims against us are annulled, and we are judged favorably. This is the meaning of the Sages’ statement: “Any year that starts impoverished (rash) will end with wealth, as the verse says, ‘From year’s beginning (me-reshit [spelled defectively]) to year’s end’ (Devarim 11:12)” (Rosh Ha-shana 16b). However, we are also commanded to surround each teru’a with teki’ot, which allude to stability and happiness, since judgment and punishment at their root are meant to perfect and correct.

It is said in the name of Arizal that one should cry on Rosh Ha-shana, and that if one is not overcome with weeping, it indicates that his soul is indecent and imperfect (Sha’ar Ha-kavanot 90a). Tears are an expression of yom teru’a, a day of wailing and tears. True, Rosh Ha-shana is also a holiday and a sacred occasion, on which there is a mitzva to rejoice. Evidently, the tears of Rosh Ha-shana are not tears of despair and depression, but tears of longing to ascend higher, tears of sorrow for all that we have not yet been privileged to repair, tears of overwhelming joy over the privilege to stand before Him, the immensity of the mission He gave us, and the holy soul with which He has endowed us. This weeping on the day of judgment causes inner joy and pleasure, because it expresses the truth, and leads to improvement and blessing. These two aspects of Rosh Ha-shana – holiday and teru’a day – are expressed through the teki’ot and the teru’ot.

03. The Beginning of the Year

The Sages disagree about when the world – or more precisely when the first human – was created. R. Yehoshua maintains that it was the first of Nisan, as the Torah refers to Nisan as the first month. R. Eliezer maintains that it was the first of Tishrei. This disagreement reflects the hidden character of Rosh Ha-shana, which leads to a dispute about what happened on its date. The Rishonim explain that both opinions are correct: God thought about creating the world on the first of Tishrei, and actually created it on the first of Nisan. The disagreement is about which day we should consider primary: the day that God, as it were, thought of creating the world, or the day He actually created it (Rabbeinu Tam). The Sages tell us that we follow R. Eliezer in practice, which is why the Rosh Ha-shana prayers read: “This day is the beginning of Your works, a commemoration of the first day” (Rosh Ha-shana 27a and Tosafot ad loc.). In any event, all agree that God judges His world and creates the new year on the first of Tishrei. This is why it is called “Rosh Ha-shana” (literally, the head of the year), as everything which happens in the course of the year is a result of what happens then.^[2]

The halakhic significance of Rosh Ha-shana as the “new year” pertains to the dating of contracts, counting years for Shemita and Yovel, and separating terumot and ma’asrot. We shall now explain.

Every contract must be dated, as it must be clear when the obligations it entails begin; pre-dated contracts are invalid. The first of Tishrei is the new year for documentary purposes (Rosh Ha-shana 8a). During the times of the Amora’im and Ge’onim, contracts were dated according to the Seleucid era (minyan shtarot). At the end of this era, Jews began dating documents from the world’s creation. This is the current practice for all contracts, including marriage and divorce documents.

Likewise, when the years are counted to determine Sabbatical and Jubilee years, the year begins in Tishrei (Rosh Ha-shana 8b). We are also commanded to separate terumot and ma’asrot from the produce of each year; one may not tithe from the produce of one year for the produce of another, as we read: “You shall set aside every year a tenth part of all the yield of your sowing that is brought from the field” (Devarim 14:22). Rosh Ha-shana is when the new year begins for this purpose (Rosh Ha-shana 12a).^[3]

04. Celebrating with Clothes and Food

While Rosh Ha-shana is a yom teru’a and a day of judgment, it is also a sacred occasion, which we are commanded to sanctify though food and drink and honor with nice clothes (Sifra, Emor 12:4; Peninei Halakha: Festivals 1:7). Half the day should be devoted to God, as on Shabbat and holidays. However, since the prayer services are very long on Rosh Ha-shana, they reduce the time available to study Torah, though it is important that prayer and study together amount to at least nine hours (as explained in Peninei Halakha: Festivals 1:5-6).

Based on textual similarities in the Torah’s description of the various holidays, the Gemara concludes that the holidays share several features (Shevu’ot 10a), and just as there is a mitzva to rejoice on the three pilgrimage festivals, so too, there is a mitzva to rejoice on Rosh Ha-shana by eating meat and drinking wine. It, too, is therefore called a “festival,” as we read: “Blow the shofar on the new moon, the covered moon for our festival day” (Tehilim 81:4).

However, since it is also a day of teru’a and judgment, the level of happiness is not the same as on the rest of the festivals. This is why in the Amida we do not add the phrase “festivals for rejoicing, holy days and seasons for joy” as for other festivals (SA 582:8), nor do we recite Hallel. The angels asked God about this: “‘Why don’t the Jews sing [Hallel] before You on Rosh Ha-shana and Yom Kippur?’ He replied: ‘Is it conceivable that the King is sitting on the throne of judgment with the books of the living and the dead opened before Him, yet the Jews burst into song?’” (Rosh Ha-shana 32b; Arakhin 10b; SA 584:1; see Peninei Halakha: Festivals 2:7).

Therefore, there is a mitzva to serve two festive meals, one at night and one during the day, and joyfully consume meat and wine. However, Rishonim write that a person should not eat to satiety on Rosh Ha-Shana, so that he does not come to act frivolously. Rather, he should stand in awe of God (SA 597:1). We see that the meals on Rosh Ha-shana should be better and more joyful than those of Shabbat, but not as lavish as those of the pilgrimage festivals.

Similarly, there is a mitzva to wear nice clothes and to wash them before the holiday. However, we do not wear our nicest clothes as we do on the other festivals, because of the fear of judgment. Some have a custom to wear white on Rosh Ha-shana (SA 581:4; MB ad loc. 25). One whose hair is too long and looks disheveled must get a haircut in honor of Rosh Ha-shana. One who is normally clean-shaven must shave before Rosh Ha-shana (SA 581:4).

The dual nature of Rosh Ha-shana can be learned from Ezra the Scribe, who, in addition to encouraging the people to repent, instructed them to rejoice on Rosh Ha-shana, as it is a day consecrated to God. Early in the time of the Second Temple, when the Jewish community in Eretz Yisrael was becoming established after returning from the Babylonian exile, many of the simple people did not observe mitzvot properly. On Rosh Ha-shana, Neḥemia the political leader and Ezra the spiritual leader gathered the nation together, men and women, to inspire them to repent. Ezra read from the Torah, starting in the morning and continuing until midday, explaining the Torah and mitzvot to them. When the listeners understood that they had sinned, they were inspired to repent, and they began to mourn and cry. Ezra and Neḥemia emphasized that it was a day to rejoice in addition to repenting:

“This day is holy to the Lord your God; you must not mourn or weep,” for all the people were weeping as they listened to the words of the Torah…. “Go, eat choice foods and drink sweet drinks and send portions to whoever has nothing prepared, for the day is holy to our Lord. Do not be sad, for your rejoicing in the Lord is the source of your strength.” The Levites stilled the people, saying, “Hush, for the day is holy; do not be sad.” (Neḥemia 8:9-11)

Ezra and Neḥemia instructed the people to eat delicacies and drink sweet drinks in fulfillment of the mitzva of eating meat and drinking wine. Additionally, this would serve as a good omen for abundance and sweetness for the entire year (Rosh, Rosh Ha-shana 4:14). “Then all the people went to eat and drink and send portions and make great merriment, for they understood the things they were told” (Neḥemia 8:12). They understood that God was not interested in punishing them, but rather was happy with their repentance.

Nevertheless, in the times of the Ge’onim and Rishonim there were pious and wise people who fasted on Rosh Ha-shana. It stands to reason that given the tribulations of exile, they felt the need to identify with the pain of the Shekhina. How could they joyfully eat on the day of judgment while the Shekhina was in exile? They wished to facilitate a more profound repentance by indulging in certain ascetic practices in the hopes of neutralizing evil. In practice, though, the accepted halakha is that even during the bitter days of exile, there is a mitzva to have festive meals on Rosh Ha-shana, and it is certainly forbidden to fast.^[4]

05. Confidence and Joy Explained

“For what great nation is there that has a god so close at hand as is the Lord our God whenever we call upon Him?” (Devarim 4:7). Tur (581:4) elaborates on this verse:

What nation is like this one, which knows the character (i.e., the ways and judgments) of its God? The way of the world is that a person facing judgment wears black, wraps himself in black, and lets his beard and nails grow, because he does not know what the outcome will be. But Israel do not do this. They wear white, wrap themselves in white, shave their beards, cut their nails, eat and drink, and rejoice on Rosh Ha-shana, because they are confident that God will perform a miracle for them.

At first glance, we can ask: How can we be so confident that God will perform a miracle for us and that we will be vindicated? We see with our own eyes that many people die every year, and many others get hurt or fall ill. Clearly, they experienced no miracles.

Rather, anyone who properly observes the mitzvot of the holiday, accepts the yoke of God’s kingship, and is moved to improve their service of God can be confident of a favorable judgment, because God wants to benefit his creations. The simplest understanding of this is that God will bless us with a good year, as usually happens. But we also know that sometimes, because of a sin’s gravity or the world’s imperfection, God sees that it is best for a person to suffer or die, so that the person refines and corrects his deeds, thus earning true life in the next world. Even though we would like God’s goodness to reveal itself to us in this world without suffering, we have yet to deserve this. Nevertheless, we know that the judgment is for our own good, and we should celebrate it (Shlah, Masekhet Rosh Ha-shana, Torah Or §17).

Since God wished the Jews to accrue merit, He established the day of remembrance and shofar blasts as a day of rest and sanctity. A day of sanctity is one on which we abstain from weekday work and worries and manifest the holiness of the day through Torah, prayer, and rejoicing in the mitzva with festive meals. Had we not been commanded to celebrate Rosh Ha-shana, we would likely spend the whole day making personal requests, dreading judgment. This would not help our case. On the contrary, it would harm us, for sin happens when people forget their sacred mission and focus on personal issues. Instead, the sanctity of the day is a vehicle for the Jewish people to manifest God’s kingship in the world. This inspires them to repent out of love, meriting a favorable judgment and a blessed new year.

06. Crowning God King

The primary theme of the prayers on Rosh Ha-shana is crowning God as our king. For this reason, the third berakha of the Amida concludes with “ha-Melekh ha-kadosh” (the holy King) instead of the usual “ha-Kel ha-kadosh” (the holy God). We continue using this alternative conclusion throughout the Ten Days of Repentance. This change is so significant that if one forgets to make it, and concludes with “the holy God,” he has not fulfilled his obligation and must repeat the Amida (SA 582:1; 5:2 below). On Rosh Ha-shana, we add sections to this berakha to pray for God to reveal His kingship:

And so may Your name be sanctified, Lord our God, regarding Your people Israel, regarding Your city Jerusalem, regarding Zion, the dwelling place of Your glory, regarding the royal house of David, Your anointed, and regarding Your place and sanctuary…

Every creature will revere You, and all of creation will bow before You, and they will be bound together to carry out Your will with an undivided heart…

All wickedness will dissipate like smoke when You remove wanton governance from the earth. And You will reign – You, Lord our God, alone – over all that You made, on Mount Zion, the dwelling place of Your glory, and in Jerusalem, Your sacred city.

The conclusion of the holiday-themed fourth berakha in every Amida as well as in kiddush on Rosh Ha-shana is: “King over all the earth, Who sanctifies Israel and the Day of Remembrance.” In Musaf, the main prayer of Rosh Ha-shana, during which we blow the shofar, our Sages instituted three central berakhot, each of which comprises an entire section of the Amida: Malkhuyot, Zikhronot, and Shofarot. Malkhuyot, the first of these berakhot, is the foremost of these berakhot and mentions the holiness of the day. It, too, concludes: “King over all the earth, Who sanctifies Israel and the Day of Remembrance.” We see that the primary theme of Yom Ha-zikaron is crowning God king. In truth, Zikhronot also relates to God as the King of the world, Who remembers all of His creations. Similarly, Shofarot deals with the manifestation of His kingship in the world by means of the shofar. This is both reminiscent of Sinai and a foreshadowing of the future, for it is the blowing of a great shofar that will gather all the exiles, who will then bow before God in Jerusalem. Our shofar blasts manifest His kingship as well; due to the dread they instill, we stand before Him broken and repentant.

Given our anxiety about the upcoming year, we could have devoted the entire day of judgment to personal prayers for livelihood, health, and everything else that preoccupies people all year. However, the Jews are unique in that their deeper desire is for God’s kingship to be manifest and for the whole world to be repaired and redeemed, even if they will need to suffer to attain that goal. This is the great, awe-inspiring path that the Jewish people have chosen, from the times of our patriarchs and matriarchs, who chose to believe in God despite all the idolatry around them, through the long exile when, despite all their suffering, the Jewish people chose not to assimilate and instead continued to carry the banner of faith and Torah, to establish the world under the kingship of God.

When the Jewish people set aside their sorrows and work for God’s honor and the manifestation of His kingship, God says to the angels, “Look at My dear children, who leave their troubles aside and work for My honor.” This silences the accuser (satan), who wishes to rid the world of the Jews. Thus, Israel is granted a new year in which they will take another step toward repair and redemption. The more we humbly accept God’s rule with fear, joy, and trembling on Rosh Ha-shana, the better and more blessed a year we will experience.

07. Two Days of Rosh Ha-shana

According to the Torah, Rosh Ha-shana is only one day: “In the seventh month, on the first day of the month, you shall observe complete rest, a sacred occasion commemorated with loud blasts” (Vayikra 23:24; similarly, Bamidbar 29:1). However, in practice we observe Rosh Ha-shana for two days.

To understand why, we must first grasp that all the holidays hinge on the Hebrew calendar, which is based on the lunar cycle. At the beginning of each month, only a tiny sliver of the moon is visible. It waxes until the middle of the month, when it appears full, a complete circle. During the second half of the month, the moon wanes progressively until, at the end of the month, it is invisible to us for about twenty-four hours. It then once again appears as a tiny sliver, and a new month begins. There is a mitzva, practiced in times past, for those who saw the new moon on the thirtieth night of the month to testify before the supreme beit din, and based on this testimony, the beit din would sanctify the month. Since the moon’s cycle is about twenty-nine and a half days, sometimes a month has twenty-nine days and sometimes thirty. (See Peninei Halakha: Zemanim 1:1-2.)

If there was a holiday during the upcoming month, the beit din would immediately send messengers to all Jewish communities to let them know when the new month began. Based on this, people knew when the holiday would take place. However, because these messengers did not have time to reach distant diaspora communities before the holiday, in those communities there was doubt about its date. Therefore, the Sages ordained that holidays in the diaspora should be celebrated for two days (Peninei Halakha: Festivals 9:1-4).

Rosh Ha-shana is the only holiday that coincides with the beginning of a month. When the beit din sanctified the month, it meant that very day was a holiday. Messengers could not set out to let people know when the month was sanctified, since travel outside of the teḥum was now forbidden. As a result, even in Eretz Yisrael, people did not know when Rosh Ha-shana was declared, so they had to keep two days of Rosh Ha-shana on account of this uncertainty.

In Jerusalem, the seat of the beit din, people knew as soon as the month was sanctified, but they could not know in advance which day would be sanctified, as witnesses were accepted, and the month sanctified, only during the day. Therefore, due to uncertainty, the people had to observe the holiday starting the night of the thirtieth of Elul. If witnesses later arrived (on the thirtieth) and testified that they had seen the new moon, the beit din sanctified the month, and it was clarified retroactively that the day was indeed Rosh Ha-shana. The next day was a weekday. If the witnesses did not arrive on the thirtieth, it became clear that the thirtieth was really a weekday and the holiday would be the next day. Thus, when the beit din sanctified the month on the thirtieth, in Jerusalem the holiday was celebrated for one day; when the new moon was sanctified on the following day, two days were observed even in Jerusalem.

This uncertainty about the date fits well with the hidden, concealed character of Rosh Ha-shana. It is also the reason the holiday comes at a time when the hidden moon is just beginning to appear, which is why it is referred to as keseh. Thus we read, “Blow the horn on the new moon, the covered (keseh) moon, for our festival day” (Tehilim 81:4). Our Sages ask, “During which holiday is the moon covered? It must be Rosh Ha-shana” (Rosh Ha-shana 8a).

08. Keeping Two Days Nowadays

According to halakha, when the beit din cannot sanctify months based on testimony, Rosh Ḥodesh is sanctified according to the calculation of the Hebrew calendar. In 359 CE (4119 from creation), almost three hundred years after the destruction of the Second Temple, Hillel the Second, the nasi of the beit din, realized that it was no longer possible to sustain the beit din that sanctified the months. He and his colleagues instituted a fixed calendar and, based on it, sanctified all the months until the restoration of the beit din (MT, Laws of Sanctification of the New Moon 8:2; Peninei Halakha: Zemanim 1:3 n. 3).

Seemingly, at that point there was no longer a need to keep two days of Rosh Ha-shana. After all, everyone knew, based on the calendar, when the first of Tishrei would be. However, just as the Sages ordained that those living in the diaspora should continue to follow their custom and keep each holiday for two days, so too, they ordained that residents of Eretz Yisrael should follow their custom and keep Rosh Ha-shana for two days. One might suggest that the fact that it was often necessary to keep two days even when the month was sanctified based on witnesses implies that this is the proper way to observe it.^[5] As usual, halakha reflects spiritual reality. Zohar (III 231a) explains that because of the severity of the judgment, the Sages saw fit to add a day, so the judgment contain compassion and thus be mitigated. If Rosh Ha-shana were only one day, the world might be destroyed due to the severity of the judgment.

Furthermore, the reason all holidays must be celebrated for two days in the diaspora is because the people there are living far away from the manifestation of holiness. In Eretz Yisrael, however, where holiness is more accessible, the holiness of the holidays can be absorbed in only one day. This can be compared to a flashlight: When illuminating a nearby location, the light is strong and focused on a small area. In contrast, when it is used to illuminate a distant location, the light is weaker and more diffuse (Derekh Mitzvotekha 114:1). Because Rosh Ha-shana is a day of hiddenness and concealment, two days are needed to absorb its light, even in Eretz Yisrael.

Perhaps we can suggest that the prayers of the first day are primarily directed toward collective matters – that we may merit that God’s kingship manifests over His people, Israel, and over Zion, the dwelling place of His glory, so that every living being will say, “The Lord, God of Israel, is King, and His kingship has dominion over all.” Through this, the whole world will attain blessing and peace. In contrast, in the prayers of the second day (which was established by the Sages), we ask for all these lofty ideals to be realized in our individual lives as well. We ask to be partners in revealing God’s glory in the world in our day-to-day lives, and thus to merit divine blessing.^[6]

09. The Status of the First Day and Reciting She-heḥeyanu on the Second

Nowadays we have a calendar and know when Rosh Ha-shana is. Thus, the first day of Rosh Ha-shana is Torah-mandated, while the second day is rabbinic. This is true for all the holidays in the diaspora as well – the first day is Torah-mandated and the second is rabbinic. Therefore, if doubts arise concerning the laws of Yom Tov or shofar, on the first day we are stringent, following the principle, “When there is uncertainty about Torah law, we are stringent.” In contrast, on the second day we are lenient, following the principle, “When there is uncertainty about rabbinic law, we are lenient.” Thus, the Sages permitted performing burials on the second day of Yom Tov and Rosh Ha-shana, for the sake of the dignity of the dead (SA 526:4; Peninei Halakha: Festivals 7:5). It is also forbidden to prepare on the first day of Rosh Ha-shana for the second day. This prohibition includes cooking, setting the table, and washing the dishes. These laws are the same as those concerning preparing on the first day of Yom Tov for the second day in the diaspora (SA 503:1; Peninei Halakha: Festivals 9:5, 2:12).

However, there are some differences between the two days of Yom Tov celebrated in the diaspora and the two days of Rosh Ha-shana. The two days in the diaspora were grounded in uncertainty as to which day the court had sanctified the month. In contrast, Rosh Ha-shana was sometimes celebrated for two days even when there was no doubt as to its date. This happened when the witnesses arrived in the late afternoon of the first day. In this case, the Sages ordained that their testimony not be accepted lest the beit din sanctify the month without leaving enough time to offer all the holiday sacrifices and to recite the special psalm for Rosh Ha-shana. However, since the first day was worthy of being sanctified, the Sages ordained that the day continue to be observed as a holiday, even once it was decided that it would not be sanctified. Since Rosh Ha-shana sometimes extended to two days due to this law, the Sages called the two days of Rosh Ha-shana “one long day” (“yoma arikhta”).^[7]

For this reason, it is unclear whether the berakha of She-heḥeyanu should be recited on the second day. In the diaspora, on the second day of Yom Tov, the berakha is recited; since the second day was established on account of uncertainty, its mitzvot are the same as those of the first day. In contrast, on Rosh Ha-shana, since the two days are considered one long day for some purposes, some say that She-heḥeyanu should be recited only on the first day. In practice, most poskim maintain that the berakha should be recited during kiddush of the second night as well as of the first, and this is the custom. However, le-khatḥila it is preferable to wear something new or to serve a new fruit at the meal on the second night of Rosh Ha-shana. Then all would agree that She-heḥeyanu is recited (SA 600:2). Clearly if a new fruit was on the table during kiddush so as to enable the recitation of She-heḥeyanu, She-heḥeyanu should not be recited again before eating the fruit.

Before blowing the shofar on the second day, Ashkenazic custom is to recite the berakha of She-heḥeyanu, while Sephardic custom is not to (SA, Rema 600:3). When possible, it is preferable for the person blowing the shofar to wear a new garment and have it in mind too when he recites She-heḥeyanu (MB ad loc. 7).

10. Malkhuyot, Zikhronot, and Shofarot

The Musaf service is the most significant of the Rosh Ha-shana services. We blow the shofar during this service, and the Sages ordained that we add the three berakhot of Malkhuyot, Zikhronot, and Shofarot to its Amida. These sections express the unique elements of the day, and through them we can merit a good new year. As God said to the Jewish people: “On Rosh Ha-shana, recite Malkhuyot, Zikhronot, and Shofarot before Me. Malkhuyot to crown Me your King; Zikhronot to invoke your memory before Me; and how is this done? Via the shofar” (Rosh Ha-shana 16a). These three sections are one unit. One who is unfamiliar with one of them should not recite the other two either. They also must be recited in the correct order; one who recites them out of order has not fulfilled his obligation (SA 593:1; MB ad loc. 5).

The Sages ordained that each section should consist of ten verses related to the theme of the berakha. These correspond to the ten utterances with which God created the world, the Ten Commandments, and the ten times that the word “halleluhu” appears in the last chapter of Tehilim. Each section begins with three verses from the Torah. These are followed by three verses from the Writings, three verses from the Prophets, and a concluding verse from the Torah. Verses that mention calamities that befell the Jews are not included, nor are Zikhronot verses of an individual, even if they are positive (Rosh Ha-shana 32a-b; SA 591:4-5).^[8]

The first berakha includes both the sanctification of the day and Malkhuyot. It begins with “You have chosen us,” the familiar formulation that begins the fourth berakha of every Yom Tov. This is followed by Aleinu – familiar as the concluding prayer of every service – in which we praise and thank God for giving us the privilege of recognizing His reign and pray that all the nations accept the yoke of His kingship. We then recite the ten verses relating to Malkhuyot, concluding with “Shema Yisrael.” Although this verse does not explicitly invoke God’s kingship, it entails accepting the yoke of the kingdom of heaven. The berakha concludes by asking God to rule over the entire world and draw us near to His worship, His Torah, and His mitzvot. “For You, God, are truth, and Your word is truth and endures forever. Blessed are you, Lord, King over all the earth, Who sanctifies Israel and the Day of Remembrance.”

In the second berakha, that of Zikhronot, we recount how God remembers His world, all His creatures, and all their deeds, particularly on this day: “This day is the beginning of Your works, a commemoration of the very first day,” on which God judges the world. We pray for God to remember us for good and bring about salvation. We conclude: “Today, in Your compassion, You remember the binding of Yitzḥak for his descendants’ sake. Blessed are You, Lord, Who remembers the covenant.”

In the third berakha, Shofarot, we describe God’s revelation to us on Mount Sinai, which was accompanied by shofar blasts. We pray that we will again experience revelation and shofar blasts announcing the redemption. We conclude:

Blow the great shofar for our freedom, and raise a banner to gather our exiles; bring together our dispersed from among the nations, and gather in our scattered from the ends of the earth. Bring us to Zion, Your city, joyfully, and to Jerusalem, the place of Your Temple, in everlasting happiness…. For You hear the sound of the shofar and listen to its blasts, and there is none to compare to You. Blessed are You, Lord, Who listens to the sound of His people Israel’s shofar-blasts with compassion.

If one is in a place without a minyan, he should neither recite Musaf nor blow the shofar during the first three hours of the day, as that is a time of judgment. Without the merit of the community, we are afraid that he will not be judged favorably. However, one praying with a minyan may pray even during the first three hours, because communal prayers are always accepted. Even if an individual does not adequately concentrate on the prayers, God does not reject them (SA 591:8; MB ad loc. 15; Peninei Halakha: Prayer 2:1-2).

11. Prayer and Torah Reading

We do not recite any vidui (confession) on Rosh Ha-shana – neither communal nor personal – because the theme of Rosh Ha-shana is to crown God king over us and the entire world, and to ask for the upcoming year to be a good one, enabling us to reveal the glory of His kingship. It is not appropriate to use this day for our personal self-improvement. That is what the rest of the Ten Days of Repentance are for. It is also not appropriate to mention sins, which diminish the glory of His kingship. There is even concern that mentioning them might strengthen the accusers’ case against us (Zohar II 186a; according to Arizal, in between the shofar blasts one may quietly confess; see below 4:7).

Some maintain that just as we do not recite vidui on Rosh Ha-shana, we should also leave out the lines of the Avinu Malkeinu prayer that mention sin, like, “Our Father, our King, we have sinned before You” (Beit Yosef; Arizal). Others maintain the custom of reciting the entire Avinu Malkeinu, arguing that the lines that mention sin are not confessional but simply note our general state (Rema 584:1; MB ad loc. 3).

Even though we normally recite Hallel on holidays, we do not do so on Rosh Ha-shana because it is a day of judgment (as explained above, section 4).

There are many changes made in the Amida during the Days of Awe. The most important one is in the conclusion of the third berakha where we substitute “ha-Melekh ha-kadosh” for “ha-Kel ha-kadosh.” One who forgot to incorporate this change has not fulfilled his prayer obligation, as explained below (5:2).

The laws and customs pertaining to the ḥazan are explained above (2:10). The custom to stand when the ark is open, and the admonition not to pray out loud nowadays, are explained above as well (2:11).

As on all the festivals, five people are called up to the Torah (Peninei Halakha: Festivals 2:8). On the first day, we read the story of Yitzḥak’s birth and the banishment of Hagar and Yishmael (Bereishit 21:1-34), and the haftara is the story of Ḥanna and the birth of Shmuel (SA 584:2). This is appropriate, as three righteous women conceived on Rosh Ha-shana: Our matriarch Sarah, mother of Yitzḥak; our matriarch Raḥel, mother of Yosef; and Ḥanna, mother of the prophet Shmuel (Rosh Ha-shana 10b). These women were so exceptionally righteous that they were destined to give birth to children whose souls were radically new. These souls could not be born naturally, which is why their mothers remained barren for so long. It was only through the renewal of Rosh Ha-shana that they could be helped.

Most of the Torah reading, however, tells of the banishment of Yishmael. We can learn two principles from this: 1) Despite the pain it caused, the banishment of Yishmael was not in any way immoral. Had it been, the Sages would not have ordained its reading on Rosh Ha-shana, as they would not have wanted to provide the accusers with material. 2) Especially on Rosh Ha-shana, the day of judgment, it is important to distinguish between the Jewish people and the rest of the nations, who are not willing to accept upon themselves the great and awe-inspiring mission of repairing the world under the kingship of God – just as it was necessary to separate Yishmael from Yisrael.

On the second day we read the story of the binding of Yitzḥak (Bereishit 22:1-24), in order to invoke the merit of our ancestors. We then read a comforting haftara from the Book of Yirmiyahu (31:1-19). On both days, the custom is to take out a second Torah scroll for the maftir reading, whose subject is the holiday offerings (Beit Yosef OḤ 488:2).

12. Symbolic Foods

Everything we do on Rosh Ha-shana has implications for the whole year. Since this is the first day of the year, when life is allotted to every being, every action, word, and thought of the day impacts upon the whole year. This is the meaning of our Sages’ principle, “Symbols are a real thing” (Keritot 6a). That is, symbolic acts have significance; if one performs a symbolic act of blessing at the beginning of the year, it will lead, we hope, to blessing throughout the year.

Based on this, the Gemara recommends that at the Rosh Ha-shana meal, people eat foods that have auspicious implications for the whole year: karti (leek), so that “our enemies may be cut down (yikartu)”; rubya (black-eyed peas), so that “our merits may be plentiful (yirbu)”; tamar (dates), to signify that “our enemies and sins may come to an end (yitamu)”; selek (beet), “so that our enemies may be removed (yistalku)”; and dela’at (pumpkin), which symbolizes blessing, as it is large and fast-growing (SA 583:1). It is also customary to eat apples dipped in honey or sugar water, to symbolize a sweet and good new year, and pomegranates, whose many seeds symbolize our wish for our merits to increase (Rema ad loc.). Many have the custom to eat from the head of a ram or a fish, symbolizing our wish to be the head, not the tail (SA 583:2).^[9] It is also customary to eat fish, as they are very fertile and not subject to the evil eye.

Based on this principle, there are additional customs to eat a variety of foods whose names, shapes, or tastes are positive omens for the new year; each community’s customs are based on its languages and the foods that were available to it. When possible, it is good to carry on these traditions.

We do not just eat these foods. Rather, Rishonim say that it is proper to add a short prayer (Yehi Ratzon) before the consumption of each food. For example, before eating dates one should recite: “May it be Your will, Lord our God and God of our fathers, that our enemies come to an end.” Shlah explains that the primary goal of all of these symbolic foods is to inspire us to pray and repent. Every prayer on Rosh Ha-shana has a serious impact on what happens during the course of the year. Therefore, it is proper on Rosh Ha-shana that even eating itself be permeated with prayers for the upcoming year to be good and sweet (Shlah, Masekhet Rosh Ha-shana, Ner Mitzva §21).

Many customarily dip the challah on which they recite Ha-motzi in honey or sugar to symbolize our wish for good and sweet year (MB 583:3). Some dip the challah into salt first, but use only a little, so that it will not impair the sweet taste. Others simply leave salt on the table but do not dip the bread in it. Some keep dipping challah in honey until Simḥat Torah. Others do so only on Rosh Ha-shana. All of the customs are legitimate, and everyone should continue with his family custom.

It is customary on Rosh Ha-shana to eat good, fine foods as a good omen for the entire year. Many also avoid eating unripe fruit or preparing sour, salty, or bitter foods (Rema 583:1; MB ad loc. 5). This is the custom of Ashkenazim and many Sephardim (Ḥida; R. Ḥayim Palachi; Ben Ish Ḥai; Kaf Ha-ḥayim 583:18). Nevertheless, many people do eat sharp foods, although since many Ashkenazim tend to eat sweet foods, they are anyway not eating sharp, peppery foods.

There is an Ashkenazic custom to avoid eating nuts on Rosh Ha-shana, because they allude to sin and because they can increase phlegm and sputum and lead to disturbance of the prayer service (Rema 583:2).

13. The Order of Eating

Some eat the symbolic foods after kiddush but before eating challah. However, the more correct custom is to have the challah first, since halakha views bread as the more important food (Peninei Halakha: Berakhot 9:8). Additionally, if the symbolic foods are eaten before the bread, it is not clear what should be done about a berakha aḥarona (ibid. 3:12).

Therefore, after making kiddush, we wash our hands and make the berakha on the challah (which many dip into honey or sugar, as explained in the previous section). Afterward, we eat the symbolic foods. The berakha of Borei Pri Ha-etz should be recited over one of the fruits, which then covers all the rest of the fruits. The fruits require a separate berakha because Ha-motzi covers only foods that are filling and are an integral part of the festive meal. However, the symbolic fruits are meant to add meaning to the meal rather than being an integral part of it. Therefore, they require their own berakha (ibid. 3:7). Dates should be eaten first and the berakha of Borei Pri Ha-etz should be recited over them (even though eating an apple and honey is the best-known custom), because dates are one of the seven species associated with Eretz Yisrael (and are considered more auspicious than pomegranates as they are closer to the word “land” in the verse that lists the seven species; ibid. 9:9-10). After reciting the berakha, one should eat a bit of the fruit before reciting the traditional Yehi Ratzon, so that there is no interruption between the berakha and the eating.

Symbolic foods whose berakha is Borei Pri Ha-adama do not require a separate berakha. Since they are cooked in the same way as normal vegetables, are filling, and are part of the meal, they are exempted by the berakha of Ha-motzi.

It is customary to recite a Yehi Ratzon before eating each of the symbolic foods. One of the participants recites the Yehi Ratzon out loud and everyone responds Amen and eats.

Some eat the symbolic foods on the first night only (Bnei Yisaskhar, Tishrei 2:11), but many people do so on both nights (Ḥida; Eliya Rabba; Ḥatam Sofer). Some even do so during the daytime meals (Mateh Ephraim 597:4; Ben Ish Ḥai, Year 1, Nitzavim §8).

14. More Symbolic Practices

Since everything we do on Rosh Ha-shana is an omen for the entire year, all should be joyful and confident that God will accept their repentance; all should be loving toward their friends and judge them favorably. One should not get angry at friends, argue with them, or speak badly of them. Apart from the prohibitions entailed by such things, they are bad omens for the upcoming year. (See MB 583:5.)

Since Rosh Ha-shana is a Yom Tov, it is a mitzva to be happy and to make others happy. Therefore, during the meals, everyone should try to make everyone present feel good. This, too, is a good omen for the whole year. (See n. 4 above; Peninei Halakha: Festivals 1:11.)

One should not sleep too much on Rosh Ha-shana, as our Sages tell us that if one sleeps on Rosh Ha-shana, his mazal – the angel charged with bringing him good fortune – will sleep all year (cited in the name of the Yerushalmi). Rather, in addition to the obligatory prayers and meals, it is appropriate to study as much Torah as possible. Nevertheless, one should not get too little sleep either, as this can disturb the ability to concentrate during prayer and study. Therefore, someone who is tired after the meal should sleep, to enable him to study properly. Some Torah greats slept on Rosh Ha-shana just as they did on other festivals (Maharam of Rothenburg). In any case, as we have seen (section 4), people should make sure to dedicate half the day to God; prayer and Torah study time should amount to at least nine hours per day.

Some avoid sleeping during the day, in hopes that this will lead to their being energetic and lively for the entire year (Rema 583:2; Mateh Ephraim). However, if someone sits around and wastes time, though awake, it is considered as if he is sleeping (MB 583:9). Most Aḥaronim, following Arizal, write that the main concern is not to sleep before midday (SAH ad loc. 8, AHS ad loc. 4; MB ad loc. 9; Kitzur Shulḥan Arukh 129:20). According to this custom, one should arise at dawn, or sunrise at the latest. If one is concerned that waking up so early will make it difficult for him to focus on prayer or to study properly, he may sleep until close to prayer time, for waking up early, though virtuous, is not as important as being focused when praying and studying Torah.

After Ma’ariv, people say to each other, “Le-shana tova tikatev[i] ve-teḥatem[i]” (“May you be inscribed and sealed for a good year”; the bracketed parts are for addressing a woman). Some say that since the judgment is sealed on Yom Kippur, on Rosh Ha-shana one should simply say, “May you be inscribed for a good year” (Vilna Gaon). This greeting is said during the morning as well, but after midday it should no longer be used, as the primary time of judgment is over. It is enough to simply wish people a “shana tova” – a good year. If the person offering the greeting adds additional good wishes, one should reply in kind. One may also reply “same to you” (“ve-khen le-mar”).

Some do not say these greetings on the second day of Rosh Ha-shana, as the primary time of judgment is on the first day. However, most people continue to extend these greetings, as judgment is inscribed on the second day, too (MB 582:25). All these customs are legitimate.

15. Tashlikh

There is a widespread custom to go to a body of water on the first day of Rosh Ha-shana and recite several verses, including “He will cover up our iniquities; You will hurl (tashlikh) all our sins into the depths of the sea” (Micha 7:19). For this reason, the practice is referred to as Tashlikh. Over time, many communities added various other prayers and verses.

The custom of reciting Tashlikh began in the Rhineland – the heartland of Ashkenaz – during the medieval era. Over time, the custom spread to Sephardic communities as well, especially after Arizal praised it. However, there is no obligation to recite Tashlikh, and some Torah giants did not observe this custom (Vilna Gaon; R. Ḥayim of Volozhin). Most Yemenites do not say it either. Some Ḥasidim recite Tashlikh on a weekday following Rosh Ha-shana.

Various explanation for this custom are offered. Some say that it is meant to remind us of the dedication of our forefathers Avraham and Yitzḥak; when they were on their way to the Akeida, their path was suddenly blocked by floodwater, which they forded, passing the test (Maharil). Additionally, water symbolizes purity and life. When a person elevates himself through repentance, he is purified and cleansed. It is as if his sins are washed away in purifying waters. Furthermore, Tashlikh includes a petition to God to cast all the accusers created by our sins into the depth of the seas and never be recalled. Some people shake out their clothing when they recite Tashlikh, demonstrating that whatever sins they have committed are external to them, the result of evil influences that we are now shaking off.

Historically, most women did not recite Tashlikh. Some even say that it is preferable for them not to do so, in order to avoid the mingling of the sexes (Elef Ha-magen 598:7). Nevertheless, women who wish to participate may do so.

When there is no natural body of water nearby, it is customary to recite Tashlikh by a well or cistern. Where a sea or stream is visible, even at a distance, some recite it.

16. When Rosh Ha-shana Coincides with Shabbat

When Rosh Ha-shana is on Shabbat, we do not blow the shofar, as explained below (4:9-10).

Some say that if Rosh Ha-shana is on Shabbat we do not recite Avinu Malkeinu because it is inappropriate to pray on Shabbat for weekday needs, using a prayer that was originally instituted for fast days (Ran; Rema 584:1; Maharitz). In practice, Ashkenazim, Yemenites, and some Sephardim refrain from reciting it on Shabbat. Others, however, do recite it even on Shabbat (Tashbetz). Since Arizal also maintained that it should be recited even on Shabbat, this is the common custom among Sephardim. (Regarding Shabbat Shuva, see below 5:6-7.)

One must eat three meals. If it is difficult to have the third meal, whether because people are still full from the earlier meal, or because this third meal would be too close to the upcoming meal (supper of the second day), lunch can be split in two: People can wash their hands, eat a course or two, recite Birkat Ha-mazon, wait for half an hour (during which they can study Torah or take a walk), then wash again and have the second half of the meal. (See Peninei Halakha: Berakhot ch. 12 n. 2.)

When the first day of Rosh Ha-shana is on Shabbat, many of those who normally say Tashlikh on the first day delay its recitation until the second day (Rema 583:2; MB ad loc. 8; see Kaf Ha-ḥayim ad loc. 30-34).

01. The Mitzva to Hear the Teru’a of the Shofar

It is a positive mitzva to hear the blast (teru’a) of a shofar on Rosh Ha-shana, as it says, “In the seventh month, on the first of the month…. You shall observe it as a day of blasts (yom teru’a)” (Bamidbar 29:1), and “In the seventh month, on the first day of the month, you shall observe complete rest, a sacred occasion commemorated with loud blasts (zikhron teru’a)…” (Vayikra 23:24).

The word “teru’a” denotes brokenness. Thus, we read, “Smash them (tero’em) with an iron mace; shatter them like potter’s ware” (Tehilim 2:9). The word “tero’em” means breaking. Similarly, we read, “The earth is breaking, breaking (ro’a hitro’a’a). The earth is crumbling, crumbling. The earth is tottering, tottering” (Yeshayahu 24:19). It also says, “They shall lay waste (ve-ra’u) to the land of Assyria with the sword” (Micha 5:5), meaning they will smash the land of Assyria (Rashi). Similarly, Onkelos translates “yom teru’a” as “a day of wailing.”

While teki’a expresses joy and stability, teru’a alludes to brokenness, fear, tears, and radical change. Similarly, God instructed the Israelites in the desert to blow a teki’a on the trumpets when they needed to gather the people, as teki’a expresses joy and togetherness. In contrast, when they needed to go out to war or leave their encampment and move on, they were instructed to blow a teru’a (Bamidbar 10:1-7), for a teru’a represents brokenness, tears over that which is finished but imperfect, and apprehension about what comes next (3:2 above).

So too, on Rosh Ha-shana, which is when the previous year’s life has already been lived, never to return, and the upcoming year’s life has yet to be allotted, people experience anguish over the lost opportunities of the past year and great trepidation in anticipation of the judgment about the upcoming one. We face the accuser, and we do not know who will live and who will die, who will be healthy and who will suffer. God, in His mercy, commands us to blow teru’ot with the shofar and thereby mitigate the judgment, for by accepting His kingship and judgment, we are inspired to repent. Therefore, even though the teru’a is short, it expresses the character of the day. This is why Rosh Ha-shana is referred to as Yom Teru’a – a day of brokenness and tears, fear and trepidation.

Based on a close reading of the verses, our Sages inferred an obligation to hear three teru’ot on Rosh Ha-shana, each one of which must be preceded and followed by a teki’a. The Torah commandment is to hear three sets of teki’a–teru’a-teki’a (Rosh Ha-shana 32b, 34a).

The first teki’a of each set expresses the natural uprightness of the soul, as that of small children who have yet to sin and who are still innocent and pure. As a child matures, though, he is exposed to the complexities and dilemmas of this world; he struggles and is tested; he fails and sins. This is expressed by the teru’a, sighing or crying about our character defects and the sins to which we have succumbed. After this, another simple teki’a completes the set. It again expresses goodness and rectitude, but this time it is the goodness that follows repentance and asking forgiveness. Thus, each blast expresses a different part of life: the positive beginning, the struggle with life’s challenges, and the concluding corrective. At the end of all the blasts, the custom is to blow a particularly long teki’a, expressing the ultimate corrective, when all struggling and suffering is over. (See Shlah, Masekhet Rosh Ha-shana, Torah Or §55.)

Even though Rosh Ha-shana is referred to as Yom Teru’a because of the judgment and trembling inspired by the teru’a, we still blow a teki’a before and after the teru’a. This is because, like the positive teki’a, judgment’s goals are positive: to distance us from evil, to lead us to self-improvement, and to grant us ultimate reward (Rabbeinu Baḥya, Kad Ha-kemaḥ, Rosh Ha-shana 2; Akeidat Yitzḥak, Sha’ar 67).

The shofar hints at this duality as well. It frightens us when we hear it, and it simultaneously inspires us to return to our roots, to our basic inner goodness. This is the advantage of a shofar over a trumpet. The shofar’s natural sound expresses the deep desire to return to our roots, to connect with true goodness, and to strive for perfection.

02. Thirty Blasts

As we have seen, the teru’a alludes to sorrow, brokenness, and tears. Over the course of time, however, a doubt arose as to what is the optimal sound of the teru’a. Some congregations blew medium-length sounds, reminiscent of someone sighing (what we now call shevarim). Other congregations blew shorter blasts, like someone heaving with convulsive sobs (what we now call teru’a). Still others blew both types of blasts, imitating a person in pain who starts by sighing and continues with sobbing (what we now call shevarim–teru’a). Even though one fulfills the obligation with any of these variations, it can seem to unlearned people that there is a dispute about this matter.

Therefore, R. Abahu instituted that in his city (Caesaria) all three types of teru’ot would be blown (Rosh Ha-shana 34a; R. Hai Gaon). There was another reason for his ordinance: each type of teru’a has a unique value, and it is proper to hear all types of teru’a (Zohar III 231b). This ordinance was then accepted by all communities; ever since, the medium-length blasts are called “shevarim” and the short blasts are called “teru’a.” The order of blowing is as follows: We begin with three sets of tashrat (teki’a, shevarim-teru’a, teki’a). We follow this with three sets of tashat (teki’a, shevarim, teki’a). We conclude with three sets of tarat (teki’a, teru’a, tekia) (SA 590:2).

Since R. Abahu’s ordinance was accepted, the obligation is no longer fulfilled by hearing only one type of teru’a. Rather, one must hear all three types of teru’a. Thus, even though according to the Torah we are obligated to blow nine blasts, nowadays we are obligated to blow thirty: nine for the three sets of tashat, nine for the three sets of tarat, and twelve for the three sets of tashrat.^[1]

03. The “Standing” and “Sitting” Shofar-blasts

Our Sages ordained that the mitzva of hearing the shofar is integrated into the special berakhot added in the Amida of Musaf on Rosh Ha-shana: Malkhuyot, Zikhronot, and Shofarot. This enhances both the shofar-blowing and the prayers. This is not a prerequisite for fulfilling the mitzva, though; when the shofar-blowing cannot be integrated into the prayers, prayers and shofar-blowing may be separated. Moreover, the integration of the berakhot and the shofar-blowing was ordained only for communal prayer; someone praying alone may not blow the shofar during the Amida (Rosh Ha-shana 32a, 34b; SA 592:1-2).

Originally, the shofar was blown and the special berakhot were recited during Shaḥarit, for those who are enthusiastic perform a mitzva at the earliest opportunity (“zerizim makdimim le-mitzvot”). Later, at a time of anti-religious persecution, shofar-blowing was outlawed by the government. Enemy soldiers would try to catch Jews blowing shofar on the morning of Rosh Ha-shana. So the Jews instituted that the shofar be blown, and the special berakhot recited, at Musaf, which can be prayed in the afternoon. Even after the ban on shofar-blowing ended, the time did not revert back, out of fear that the persecution would be renewed. Eventually the custom of blowing the shofar during Musaf took root (Rosh Ha-shana 32b; Tosafot and Ritva ad loc.). Some maintain that it is actually preferable to blow during Musaf, since the Musaf offering was a central mitzva of the holiday, and the Musaf prayer corresponds to it (one view in y. Rosh Ha-shana 4:8).

The Sages also instituted shofar-blowing before Musaf and permitted sitting for these blasts; they are therefore known as teki’ot di-meyushav (sitting teki’ot). Even though le-khatḥila it is preferable for both shofar-blower and listeners to stand while the mitzva is being fulfilled, the Sages permitted the listeners to sit before Musaf in order to show that the teki’ot blown later, during Musaf (teki’ot di-me’umad), are the primary ones, for which one must stand. Indeed, the custom of Sephardim and Yemenites is to sit for the teki’ot before Musaf. Nevertheless, Ashkenazim commonly stand for these teki’ot because they are the first shofar blasts and one fulfills his basic obligation with them (SA 585:1; MB ad loc. 2).

According to the Gemara (Rosh Ha-shana 16a-b), the reason the Sages instituted shofar-blowing while sitting before Musaf and then again while standing during Musaf is “to confound the accuser (satan).” Rashi explains that when the satan sees that the Jews love the mitzvot so much that they blow even more blasts than the Torah requires, he is silenced. Ramban explains that the shofar blasts have the special power to bind the Jews to their Father in Heaven. This confounds the satan during the first teki’ot, and thus he is unable to prosecute during the Amida. Others say that the prosecutor can prosecute only once. When the shofar-blowing starts before the Amida, he lays out his case, so he has nothing left to say during the Amida (Raavad). Still others say that the primary manifestation of the satan is as the evil inclination. This inclination is thwarted by the many shofar blasts, which inspire us to repent (Ran). Perhaps during the first set of blasts, one is so excited that he is unable to focus properly; later, after he has heard thirty blasts, he is calmer and can focus properly.

04. The Custom of Blowing One Hundred Blasts

There is an ancient custom, dating back to Geonic times, to blow a hundred blasts. During the times of the Rishonim, most communities did not follow this practice. Rather, they blew thirty blasts before Musaf, and during Musaf itself, some blew an additional ten blasts, while others blew an additional thirty. During the time of the Aḥaronim, following Arizal’s prescription of mystical meditations (kavanot) for each of the hundred blasts, the custom of blowing a hundred blasts spread, and today it is almost universal.^[2]

The hundred blasts are arranged as follows. Before Musaf, we blow thirty blasts: three sets of tashrat, three sets of tashat, and three sets of tarat. During the repetition of the Musaf Amida, another thirty blasts are blown: one set each of tashrat, tashat, and tarat after each of Malkhuyot, Zikhronot, and Shofarot.

Regarding the silent Amida, there are different customs. Some blow the shofar during the silent Amida as they do during the repetition. By integrating the blasts and the prayers, both are more readily accepted. This is the custom of Sephardim and Ḥasidim. For those who follow this custom, the shofar-blower sets the pace of prayer, and worshippers do their best to pray at his pace so that they hear the blasts at the proper place, at the end of a berakha. To that end, the shofar-blower must pray at a steady pace. Anyone who finishes a berakha before he does should wait for him to blow the shofar before continuing, but those who wish to pray a bit faster or slower may do so. Those who choose to do this recite the paragraph “Ha-yom Harat Olam” following their conclusion of each berakha. Then, when the shofar is blown, even if they are in the middle of a different berakha, they stop to listen to the blasts and then continue with their prayers. (See Mateh Ephraim 592:13.)

Others do not blow during the silent Amida. (This is the custom of Ashkenazim.) They feel that the primary ordinance is to blow the shofar during the communal prayer, i.e., during the ḥazan’s repetition. Additionally, the need for the individual to coordinate the pace of his prayer with that of the shofar-blower is likely to distract the focus of the worshipper.^[3]

Those who blow the shofar during the silent Amida will have blown ninety blasts by the end of the ḥazan’s repetition; they blow the last ten during the full Kaddish. Those who do not blow during the silent Amida are still forty teki’ot short at the end of the ḥazan’s repetition. They blow thirty blasts after Aleinu and another ten following An’im Zemirot (MB 592:4).

05. The Berakha, the Mitzva, and the Intent

Before the shofar-blowing is begun, two berakhot are recited: A) “Blessed are You, Lord our God, King of the universe, Who has made us holy through His commandments and has commanded us to hear the sound of the shofar” (“asher kideshanu be-mitzvotav ve-tzivanu lishmo’a kol shofar”). B) “Blessed are You, Lord our God, King of the universe, Who has given us life, sustained us, and brought us to this time” (“she-heḥeyanu ve-kiyemanu ve-higi’anu la-zeman ha-zeh”). While Sephardim do not recite She-heḥeyanu on the second day, Ashkenazim do. If possible, it is preferable that the shofar-blower wear a new item of clothing and have that in mind as well when he recites the berakha (SA 500:3; MB ad loc. 7).

Our Sages were precise in formulating the berakha which concludes “to hear the sound of the shofar,” as the mitzva is to hear the shofar, not to blow it (SA 585:2). Thus, a deaf person is exempt from the mitzva even though he is capable of blowing the shofar. One who is hearing impaired but can still hear the blasts is obligated in the mitzva and may even blow on behalf of others. One who wears an electronic hearing aid should remove it so that he hears the unmediated sound of the shofar.^[4]

Since the mitzva is to hear the sound of the shofar, if one blows the shofar into a pit or a bomb shelter so that he hears the sound of the shofar together with its echo, he has not fulfilled his obligation, because the sound he hears is not that of the shofar alone. However, those who are in the pit or bomb shelter, since they do not hear an echo, have fulfilled their obligation (Rosh Ha-shana 27b, 20a; SA 587:1-2; MB ad loc. 10).

One who is mute but can hear is obligated in the mitzva and can fulfill it on behalf of others. One of the listeners should recite the berakhot. One who is mentally incompetent is exempt from all mitzvot, including shofar (SA 589:2; MB ad loc. 4).

If the shofar-blower already fulfilled his obligation and is now blowing for people who did not yet fulfill their obligation, it is preferable for one of them to recite the berakhot. Nevertheless, when this situation arises in practice, it is common for the shofar-blower to recite the berakha, and there are grounds for this practice (Beit Yosef and Rema 585:2; MB ad loc. 5).

Mitzvot require intent. Therefore, one who is practicing shofar-blowing does not fulfill his obligation, even if he blows the requisite blasts. Similarly, if one is at home and hears the shofar being blown at a nearby synagogue but does not have in mind to fulfill his obligation, he does not fulfill it. In order for a listener to fulfill his obligation, both he and the shofar-blower must have this in mind. The shofar-blower must have in mind to fulfill the obligation for anyone who hears him, not just those he can see, because there may be people outside the synagogue or in nearby homes who want to fulfill their obligation. If the shofar-blower has in mind only to fulfill the obligation of those he sees, these additional people will not fulfill their obligation (SA 589:8-9). Le-khatḥila, the shofar-blower must explicitly have in mind to fulfill the obligation of all listeners, and listeners must explicitly have in mind to fulfill the mitzva. However, be-di’avad, even if they did not have this in mind explicitly, as long as they had latent intent, they fulfilled their obligation. Latent intent means that if one were to ask the shofar-blower why he blew, he would answer: to fulfill the obligation of all the listeners. And if one were to ask a listener why he came to hear the shofar, he would answer: to fulfill the mitzva (Peninei Halakha: Prayer 15:8).

06. The Time of the Mitzva and the Obligation of Women and Children

The shofar must be blown during the day, as the verse states, “In the seventh month, on the first day of the month…you shall observe it as a day of blasts” (Bamidbar 29:1). Therefore, the time to fulfill the mitzva begins at sunrise. If one blows it from the time of dawn (when the first light is visible in the east), he fulfills his obligation. If he did not blow the shofar before sunset, he should do so during twilight (bein ha-shmashot), but without a berakha (Megilla 20b; SA 588:1; MB ad loc. 1-2; for more about these times, see Peninei Halakha: Prayer 11:1 and Peninei Halakha: Shabbat 3:1).

As we have seen (section 3), the Sages instituted that the communal shofar-blowing take place during Musaf. The poskim write that if one is unable to pray with a congregation, and so is unable to blow the shofar during Musaf, he should blow the shofar after the first three hours of the day, as judgment is more benign later in the day (Mateh Ephraim; MB 588:2; 3:10 above).

Men are obligated in the mitzva; women are exempt since it is a time-bound positive mitzva. Women who nevertheless wish to hear the shofar fulfill a mitzva and will be rewarded for it. The custom of most women is to voluntarily fulfill this mitzva. The Rishonim disagree as to whether women hearing the shofar should make a berakha (Peninei Halakha: Women’s Prayer 2:8, 23:2). Some say that the berakha was instituted only for men, who are obligated in the mitzva, but a woman who blows the shofar for herself should not recite a berakha. Similarly, if a man blows the shofar for women, he should not recite the berakha. This is the Sephardic practice. Others say that even though women are exempt from the mitzva, those who choose to hear the shofar should make a berakha because they are indeed fulfilling a mitzva. Thus, if a woman blows the shofar for herself, she recites a berakha, and if a man blows the shofar for women, one of them should recite the berakha on behalf of all the women present. This is the Ashkenazic practice.

There is a mitzva to train a child who has reached an educable age – that is, a child who can understand that there is a mitzva to hear three sets of tashrat, tashat, tarat – to hear the shofar. If he is too young to understand this, there is no mitzva to train him. Nevertheless, as long as a child can stand quietly and not disturb the worshippers, it is good to bring him to hear the shofar. It is an opportunity for children to gain memories of the holy atmosphere. However, a child who has trouble sitting quietly during teki’ot or prayer and is likely to disturb other worshippers may not be brought to services (MB 587:16).

After fulfilling the mitzva to hear the shofar, blowing it unnecessarily is prohibited, as it is considered a weekday activity, like playing a musical instrument. However, the prohibition does not apply to children. On the contrary, children who are of an educable age should be encouraged to blow the shofar all day long, so that by the time they reach halakhic maturity (at the age of bar or bat mitzva), they will know how to do it (Rema 596:1). Nevertheless, they must be careful not to blow the shofar while people are sleeping.

07. Shofar-Blowing: Laws and Customs

The custom is to appoint a righteous, benevolent, Torah-oriented person to blow the shofar for the community, but it should not become a matter of contention (MB 585:3). If possible, it is better to place the shofar on the right side of the mouth. It is also customary for the wider opening of the shofar to face upward, as it is written, “God ascends with a blast; the Lord, with the sound of a shofar” (Tehilim 47:6).

In the past, when people recited the prayers by heart, the custom was to make sure that the ḥazan for Musaf would not blow the shofar during the Amida, lest he become confused and lose his place. Nowadays, though, when people pray from maḥzorim, we are not concerned about this issue, so the ḥazan may blow the shofar as well (SA 585:4; MB ad loc. 14).

The shofar-blowing is not divided among several people. Rather, one person blows all the shofar blasts, as “one who begins a mitzva should be encouraged to complete it” (Rema 585:4). However, where dividing it up is an established custom, the congregation may continue doing so, as it shows how much people love the mitzva (MB ad loc. 17).

Since the berakha recited on the blasts before Musaf also covers the blasts during Musaf, one must make sure not to talk until all the blasts have been sounded (SA 592:3).

In many places, the rabbi or another Torah scholar quietly prompts the shofar-blower, telling him which blast to blow, to make sure that he does not get confused (Rema 585:4). The custom is to prompt even for the first blast. Although there is no concern for mistakes, some maintain that the prompt also helps focus (Shlah; see SHT 585:31).

One must hear every blast from its beginning to its end. If someone heard only part of a blast, he has not fulfilled his obligation. Therefore, the congregation must be totally silent during the shofar-blowing. One who needs to cough should suppress it until after the blasts (MB 587:16).

Ashkenazic custom is to conclude the set of the first thirty blasts as well as the last of the hundred blasts with an extended blast, called a “teki’a gedola.” It alludes to our great and never-ending faith. Sephardic custom is to blow an extended teru’a at the end of the service, to confound the satan (SA 596:1). The subtle message is that while we may still experience crises and “breaks,” they are ultimately transformed for the better.

If the shofar-blower feels weak and is unable to continue, someone should take over from him. If the substitute heard the earlier berakhot, he does not need to recite new berakhot, as he has already fulfilled the obligation with the berakhot of the first shofar-blower (SA 585:3).

Many shofar-blowers take two shofarot with them, so if they have difficulty blowing one, they can switch to the second. In such a case, a new berakha need not be recited, since the original berakha applied to both. Be-di’avad, even if someone started out with only one shofar and was given a different one because he had difficulty blowing the first, he need not recite another berakha (MB 585:4).^[5]

One may rinse the shofar with water, or even wine, vinegar, or arak, to improve its sound quality. This is not considered a weekday activity that is forbidden on a holiday (SA 586:23).

Some people, following Arizal and Shlah, offer various confessions and prayers after every three sets of shofar blasts. Where a congregation follows this custom, the shofar-blower stops blowing in order to accommodate them. However, many poskim rule that no prayers should be inserted during the thirty blasts. Both practices can be justified. In contrast, it is never permitted to insert a prayer between the recitation of the berakha and the beginning of the teki’ot (MB 592:12; SHT ad loc. 15).^[6]

08. Kiddush Before Shofar-Blowing and Musaf

Some congregations have the custom of making kiddush and having something to eat after Shaḥarit, before shofar-blowing and Musaf. This custom is especially prevalent in yeshivot, where the prayers last until midday or later, and having something to eat enables them to continue praying joyfully and with concentration.

At first glance, this custom is surprising. We know that once the time has arrived to fulfill a mitzva, it is forbidden to eat. For example, on Sukkot we do not eat in the morning before fulfilling the mitzva of lulav. Moreover, on the first day of Sukkot (when the mitzva of lulav is Torah-mandated), if one did not have a lulav available and started to eat, and then a lulav was brought to him, he must stop eating and do netilat lulav immediately (Sukka 38a; SA 652:2). Given this, how is it possible le-khatḥila to permit eating before shofar-blowing?

In truth, the prohibition is to sit down to a proper meal before performing the mitzva, lest one becomes so absorbed in the meal that he forgets the mitzva. When one makes kiddush and eats only a bit, there is no concern that they will forget to return to the synagogue to hear the shofar. Certainly, there is no such concern about a mitzva that everyone anticipates and that people remind one another to fulfill. Moreover, even those who are stringent and avoid all eating may be lenient when necessary. Accordingly, where the prayer service is not lengthy, it is preferable not to stop for kiddush before shofar-blowing.

Le-khatḥila, one should not eat more than and egg’s-bulk (ke-beitza) of mezonot at the kiddush, so that it is not considered a proper meal, but if one is lenient and eats a little more than this, he has an opinion to rely upon. As for fruits, dairy products, and other light foods, more may be eaten. However, a person should avoid eating heavily, as this may make him tired and hinder his concentration. In such a case, eating does him more harm than good.^[7]

09. Rosh Ha-shana on Shabbat During Temple Times

According to Torah law, even if Rosh Ha-shana is on Shabbat the shofar is blown. However, the Sages ordained that the shofar is not blown on Shabbat, because while everyone is obligated in shofar, not everyone is knowledgeable about the laws pertaining to carrying in the public domain. The Sages were concerned that people who did not know how to blow the shofar might take one to an expert to teach them. If they were to carry the shofar four amot within the public domain, they would transgress the Torah prohibition of carrying on Shabbat (Rosh Ha-shana 29b; SA 588:5).

Nevertheless, in the Temple they blew the shofar even on Shabbat, as rabbinic ordinances did not apply within the Temple. In fact, they blew in Jerusalem and its environs as well as long as the Sanhedrin was situated there, because due to the influence of the court, residents of Jerusalem and its environs were careful to avoid carrying on Shabbat (MT, Laws of Shofar 2:8-9).^[8]

Although the ordinance to refrain from blowing the shofar on Rosh Ha-shana on Shabbat is rabbinic, the Torah alludes to it: One verse says, “a day of blasts (yom teru’a)” (Bamidbar 29:1), while another says, “a sacred occasion commemorated with loud blasts (zikhron teru’a)” (Vayikra 23:24). The Gemara explains that when Rosh Ha-shana is on a weekday it is a day of teru’a, while when it is on Shabbat it is a commemoration (zikhron) of teru’a, when we mention the teru’a without actually sounding the blasts (Rosh Ha-shana 29b).^[9]

Kabbalists explain that when Rosh Ha-shana is on Shabbat, blowing the shofar is not necessary because the holiness normally achieved by blowing the shofar on Rosh Ha-shana is largely achieved on Shabbat by virtue of its intrinsic holiness. True, shofar blasts would add even more holiness, but on such an exalted plane that it would be almost impossible for us to perceive or absorb it. However, in the place of the Temple and Sanhedrin, people were able to absorb it. Therefore, in those places the shofar was blown even on Shabbat (R. Shneur Zalman of Liadi, Likutei Torah, Devarim 56ff).

10. Rosh Ha-shana on Shabbat Post-Destruction

Following the destruction of the Temple, R. Yoḥanan b. Zakkai ordained that the shofar be blown on Shabbat wherever there was a sitting beit din. He was referring to the main beit din of the time, where the new moon was sanctified, and whose judges had been ordained in an unbroken chain since the times of Moshe Rabbeinu. Wherever such a court was located, whether in Yavneh or elsewhere, the shofar was blown. If the court was no longer sitting there, it was prohibited to blow the shofar on Shabbat (MT, Laws of Shofar 2:9).

Rif, one of the greatest Rishonim, maintained that even after the chain of ordination was broken, the shofar should be blown in any important beit din. In fact, Rif followed this practice himself. In his beit din, the shofar was blown on Rosh Ha-shana even on Shabbat. However, the rest of the Rishonim disagreed with him, maintaining that the shofar was only to be blown in a beit din composed of those ordained in an unbroken chain from the time of Moshe. Therefore, there is no longer any beit din in whose presence the shofar can be blown. Furthermore, even the most devoted disciples of Rif did not follow his practice.^[10]

About a hundred years ago, after the rebuilding of Jerusalem had begun, R. Akiva Yosef Schlesinger wanted to blow the shofar in Jerusalem when Rosh Ha-shana was on Shabbat. His rationale was that the original law permitting shofar-blowing in Jerusalem and its environs was still in effect even after the destruction. Additionally, we saw that the Sages did not wish to put an absolute end to blowing the shofar when Rosh Ha-shana was on Shabbat. Thus, he felt that in his time, when there were no ordained judges, the shofar must be blown in the beit din of Jerusalem. Furthermore, since the mitzva of blowing the shofar is from the Torah, and the prohibition of blowing on Shabbat is rabbinic, whenever doubt arises we should blow the shofar, thus fulfilling the Torah commandment. R. Schlesinger also took great pains to explain how to implement shofar-blowing in a way that would eliminate the risk of people carrying on Shabbat. Although several rabbis expressed limited support for his position, those who disagreed prevailed, and the shofar was not blown on Shabbat. The main reason is as we established: License to blow the shofar on Rosh Ha-shana which is on Shabbat is limited to a beit din of ordained judges that is the central court of the time. The fact that none of the Torah greats who have lived in Jerusalem since the destruction have blown the shofar on Shabbat supports this understanding (Ir Ha-kodesh Ve-hamikdash 3:20).

11. Teru’a and Shevarim Defined

The teru’a is made up of a series of short, broken-off sounds, like a sob. In halakha, these sounds are referred to as “tromitin.” Some maintain that a teru’a is made up of three tromitin (Rabbeinu Ḥananel; Rashi), while others maintain that it is made up of nine (Rivam; Riva; Smag). In practice we blow nine, but be-di’avad the obligation is fulfilled with three. One may blow more than nine tromitin for a teru’a, as long as the sounds are continuous, with no break (SA 590:3; MB ad loc. 12; for the Yemenite custom, see the note).^[11]

The shevarim is made up of three medium-length blasts, like a sigh or groan. Each individual blast (shever) is about the length of three tromitin. Le-khatḥila, we do not add to the three blasts, but bedi’avad, one who does has fulfilled his obligation (SA 590:3; MB ad loc. 11). Some blow each shever with a rise, like a sigh in a broken voice. This is the Lithuanian custom.

If one blows a shever which is the length of two tromitin, he fulfills his obligation, for it is clear that the blast is similar to sighing rather than crying, since it is still twice as long as a teru’a’s tromit. If, however, a shever lasts for less than the length of two tromitin, he has not fulfilled his obligation. One who blows each shever for four tromitin fulfills his obligation, as this is very similar to the normal shever. Even one who extends a shever up to six tromitin fulfills his obligation be-di’avad.^[12]

12. Teki’a Defined

A teki’a is a long, smooth sound which must be at least as long as a teru’a. But we blow three types of teru’ot: shevarim-teru’a, shevarim, and teru’a. The halakha mandates that within each set of blasts, the teki’a must be the length of the teru’a of that set.^[13] Therefore, when tashrat is blown, the teki’a must be the length of eighteen tromitin, as a shevarim is about nine tromitin and the length of the teru’a is nine tromitin. Even if someone extends the teru’a or blows additional teru’ot, the teki’a does not have to extend beyond eighteen tromitin, as everyone agrees that this length fulfills the obligation. When blowing tashat or tarat, the teki’a must be the length of nine tromitin, as both the shevarim and the teru’a on their own are nine tromitin long.

As we have said, a tromit is a short blast of the shofar. The combination of many short blasts makes a teru’a. How long this takes depends upon the shofar-blower and the shofar. The faster ones blow nine tromitin in 1.25 seconds, while the slower ones take 2.5 seconds. Each shofar-blower must calibrate his teki’a and shevarim based on the length of his tromitin. If one wishes to meet the criteria of all the opinions, he should take five seconds to blow tashrat and 2.5 seconds to blow tashat and tarat.^[14]

Even if the quality of the sound changes several times during one teki’a, as long as the teki’a is continuous, it is acceptable, as any type of blast is acceptable. Those who are meticulous try to blow stable, continuous notes with no rises, falls, or other variations.^[15]

13. Breathing

Le-khatḥila, one should blow in the order mandated by the Sages: three sets of tashrat, three sets of tashat, and three sets of tarat. Be-di’avad, one who changes the order still fulfills his obligation. For example, if he blows two sets of tashrat and then goes on to blow three sets each of tashat and tarat, he can later make up the last tashrat (SA 590:9; MB ad loc. 35).

If one makes a mistake blowing a blast, sometimes it is sufficient to simply repeat the blast. Other times the entire set of three blasts – tashrat, tashat, or tarat – must be repeated. It is never necessary to repeat an entire series of three sets, as each set stands on its own.

Within each set, the shofar-blower must take a break long enough to breathe between each teki’a and the adjacent shevarim or teru’a, and vice versa. Since the teki’a expresses joy and peace, while the teru’a expresses crying and sighing, it is proper to separate them (Levush). If the shofar-blower did not make this minimal pause between them, some say that he nevertheless fulfills his obligation, while others say that he does not. Even though the lenient position is accepted, for the first thirty blasts it is proper to be stringent and return to the first teki’a of that set (SA 590:5; SAH ad loc. 9).^[16]

Each shevarim and each teru’a must be continuous. If the shofar-blower was confused and stopped for long enough to take a breath while in the middle of a shevarim or teru’a, he has not fulfilled the obligation, as he has split the blast into two distinct parts. Therefore, he must repeat it (MB 590:16; SHT ad loc. 14).^[17]

The Rishonim disagree about the shevarim-teru’a in tashrat. Many maintain that it must be blown in one breath, as they are a single mitzva. Since shevarim-teru’a may be the teru’a referred to by the Torah, one may not interrupt it by breathing in the middle – and if he did, he does not fulfill the obligation. However, he should pause slightly between them, to separate the two parts of the blast (R. Yitzḥak ibn Gi’at; Rosh; Rashba; Ran; Rivash; Beit Yosef; MB ad loc. 18). Others maintain that le-khatḥila he must take a breath between them, as people breathe while sighing or sobbing (Rabbeinu Tam). However, if he does not take a breath, all agree that he fulfills his obligation be-di’avad. To fulfill every view, the custom is that for the teki’ot before Musaf, the shofar-blower does not breathe between the shevarim and teru’a, but for the thirty teki’ot during the Amida, he does (SA 590:4; SHT ad loc. 18).

14. Mistakes and Interruptions

Two types of mistakes can be made while blowing the shofar. The first type is when the shofar-blower intentionally blows a blast which turns out to be the wrong blast. In this case, he must return to the beginning of the set. The second type is when he tries and fails to blow the proper blast. In this case, he need not repeat the set. Rather, he should take a deep breath and blow the proper blast. We will now explain further.

The first type is when the shofar-blower got confused and blew a teru’a between a teki’a and a shevarim, or a shevarim between a teru’a and a teki’a. Since he intended to blow the blast that turned out to be incorrect in the middle of a set, he must go back to the beginning of the set. This is true even if he did not complete the blast, but only blew for the length of a tromit (SA 590:8). Likewise, if after completing a shevarim he took a breath and blew another shever, he must return to the first teki’a of the set. The additional shever was an alien blast in the middle of the set. Similarly, if after blowing a teru’a he took a breath and began another teru’a, he must return to the beginning of the set (SA 590:8).^[18]

The second type is when the shofar-blower tries to blow the last teki’a of the set, but what comes out is closer to a shevarim or a teru’a. He should take a breath and blow a proper teki’a. He need not go back to the beginning of the set, since he did not mean to blow the wrong blast. Similarly, if he was trying to blow a teru’a or a shevarim but ran out of breath in the middle, he must blow that blast again, but he need not return to the beginning of the set. Some shofar-blowers like to extend the last tromit of the teru’a. They must be careful when doing so, because if it sounds like a shevarim, the teru’a must be repeated (MB 590:31).

If the shofar-blower blew three tromitin of the teru’a but was unable to continue, and he paused long enough to take a breath, he must return to the beginning of the set. Since some maintain that three tromitin are sufficient to fulfill the obligation, if he blows the nine blasts of a teru’a after taking a breath, it would be as though he blew two teru’ot (AHS 590:20).^[19]

When there are two minyanim near each other, once the first minyan has started blowing the shofar, it is preferable for the second minyan not to start blowing until the first one has finished the initial thirty blasts. This is because some maintain that if a person hears other blasts in the middle of the shofar-blowing, even if he does not intend to fulfill his obligation through them, they invalidate the blasts he has already heard. Even though the halakha follows the view of most poskim, who reject this, it is preferable le-khatḥila to defer to those who are stringent (BHL 590:8 s.v. “ke-mitasek”).

15. Shofar Defined

The shofar of Rosh Ha-shana is a hollow horn that grows from the head of an animal. The word “shofar” is related to the word “shefoferet” (“hollow tube”). A deer’s antlers may not be used, because they are not hollow but solid bone; one would have to drill a hole in them to use them. A cow’s horn may also not be used, as it is called “keren,” not “shofar” (Rosh Ha-shana 26a; SA 586:1). The sound comes out of the wider end of the shofar, the part that had been attached to the animal. This alludes to the idea that by blowing the shofar, we strike a blow against our animal nature, allowing us to reach a higher level of repentance.

There is a mitzva for the shofar of Rosh Ha-shana to be bent or curved, symbolizing the need for us to bend or humble our hearts before God (Rosh Ha-shana 26b). The best way to perform the mitzva is to use a curved ram’s horn. R. Abahu explains in the Gemara, “Why do we blow with a ram’s horn? God said, ‘Use a ram’s horn to blow before Me so that I will be reminded of the binding of Yitzḥak, son of Avraham, and I will consider it as if you sacrificed yourselves before Me’” (Rosh Ha-shana 16a). A mature male sheep is called a ram (ayil), while a female is called a ewe (raḥel). It is best to use the curved horn of the ram for a shofar; one step below that is to use the curved horn of the ewe; since ewes, too, are sheep, their horns also bring to mind the binding of Yitzḥak.

If a person has a choice of blowing either a straight ram’s horn or the curved horn of a different animal, it is preferable to use the curved shofar, because using a curved shofar is a law mentioned explicitly in the Mishna, while using a ram’s horn is only a preference (MB 586:5).^[20]

A ram’s horn is naturally curved, but if it grew straight, one may curve it by heating it up, thus making it into an ideal shofar. It is also permitted to heat a shofar and bend it for aesthetic reasons. (See Harḥavot.)

However, if someone heated it up and reshaped it so that the narrower end of the shofar became the wider end, he has invalidated the shofar. Similarly, if he turned a shofar inside out, it is invalid (SA 586:12). Such things can happen, because when a shofar is heated up it becomes very pliable; those who supply shofarot sometimes prefer to turn them inside out, because it is easier to smooth and beautify them that way. Therefore, a shofar must be bought from a trustworthy person, who can be believed when he says that he did not turn it inside out. When the wider end of a shofar has natural grooves and bumps, it is a sign that the shofar was not turned inside out.

16. Miscellaneous Laws of Shofar

A shofar must be at least a tefaḥ long, so that when the shofar-blower is holding it in his hand, both ends of the shofar can be seen (SA 586:9).

Even if the sound of a shofar is very high-pitched, very low-pitched, or very rough, it is acceptable, in accordance with the principle: “All shofar sounds are acceptable” (SA 586:6).

If one glued together pieces of several shofarot to form a new shofar, it is invalid. Even if one glued only one broken piece of a shofar onto an existing one to lengthen it, he has invalidated it, for a shofar must be a single piece as it is found naturally, with no additions. Thus, if one added to the length of a shofar with metal or plastic, it is invalid (SA 586:10-11). However, if one sawed down a shofar and as a result its sound changed, it is kosher as long as a tefaḥ of the shofar remains. Similarly, if one sanded the shofar outside and inside, making it thinner and thus changing its sound, it is kosher (SA 586:13-14).

If one coated the outside of a shofar with gold or any other material, and this changed its sound, it is invalid, because the sound is not being produced exclusively by the shofar. Therefore, one should refrain from painting a shofar, lest the paint change its sound. However, it is permitted to carve designs into a shofar (SA and Rema 586:17).

If the inside of a shofar is coated with gold or any another material, the shofar is invalid, because the blasts blown do not pass through the shofar, but rather through a different material. Similarly, if the shofar’s mouthpiece is coated with gold or another material, even if they do not add to the length of the shofar, it is invalid, because the coating separates between the shofar-blower’s mouth and the shofar (SA 586:16, 18).

If a shofar was pierced but the sound did not change, it may be used even le-khatḥila. If the sound did change, some maintain that the shofar is invalid. Le-khatḥila, one should defer to this opinion. If no other shofar is available, one may rely on the position of most poskim, that as long as the hole does not extend over most of the shofar, it is kosher, and one can recite a berakha when using it. This is true even if the length of the shofar without the hole is less than a tefaḥ.

If one plugged the hole by gluing on a piece from a different shofar, if the sound returned to what it was, and the hole does not cover most of the shofar, it is kosher. In pressing circumstances, even if the sound is affected, the shofar may be used, and the berakha may even be recited before blowing it (MB ad loc. 35).^[21]

If a shofar has a crack lengthwise that was not glued or tied, some maintain that even if it is a very small crack, it invalidates the shofar, as blowing the shofar is liable to crack the entire shofar. However, according to most poskim, if the crack extends over less than half of the shofar, the shofar is kosher. If necessary, one may rely upon them and even recite a berakha. However, if the crack runs along most of the shofar’s length, the shofar is invalid (SA 586:8; MB ad loc. 43; see BHL there). If someone heated up the shofar and repaired the crack, the shofar is kosher. If the crack extends the entire length of the shofar, the shofar is absolutely invalid. There is no way to fix it, since this object no longer qualifies as a shofar (SA 586:8). If a shofar is cracked widthwise, and the crack does not extend most of the way around, the shofar is kosher even if the sound is affected. If the crack does extend most of the way around the shofar and there is less than a tefaḥ from the mouthpiece to the crack, the shofar is invalid (ibid. 9).^[22]

01. Repentance

During the ten days between Rosh Ha-shana and Yom Kippur, God creates life for the upcoming year. So that His kindness does not reach the wicked, He judges all His creations during these days. Since He wishes to benefit all His creatures, and especially His people, through whom He channels shefa and blessing to the world, He is close, during this period, to all who sincerely call out to Him, and He extends His hand to penitents. Therefore, though repentance is always welcome, during these ten days it is more pleasing and is immediately accepted, as we read (Yeshayahu 55:6), “Seek the Lord while He can be found; call to Him while He is near” (Rosh Ha-shana 18a; MT, Laws of Repentance 2:6). During this period, individual repentance is accepted as readily as communal repentance (Pesikta Rabbati).

Therefore, it is proper during this period for a person to examine his actions in order to repent and correct his misdeeds from the past year (Rema OḤ 603:1). One should especially make an accounting of interpersonal matters, as Yom Kippur does not atone for interpersonal sins unless one first placates the person he offended (ibid. 603:4). If one has a disagreement with another about money, he should not decide for himself that he is in the right, as self-interest may blind him. Rather, he should approach a rabbi and ask for guidance. Before going to sleep each night, the pious engage in soul-searching, confess their sins, and return to God (Zohar III, 178a). During the Ten Days of Repentance, everyone should do so (MB 603:2).

Since it is primarily at this time that the world and humanity are judged, Jews customarily take special care to avoid anything prohibited and to increase Torah study, prayer, charity, and good deeds. Additionally, it is customary to wake up early to recite Seliḥot and supplications in the synagogue (MT, Laws of Repentance 3:4).

It is said in the name of Arizal that the seven days between Rosh Ha-shana and Yom Kippur contain one of each day of the week, so on each day, one should try to improve himself through repentance, Torah study, and good deeds, to rectify whatever spiritual damage he did on that day throughout the year. On Sunday he should correct his misdeeds of Sundays, on Monday of Mondays, and so on (Sha’ar Ha-kavanot 90:3; MB 603:2).

Some have a custom to be more meticulous about various areas of halakha, like kashrut, during this time period (SA 603:1 based on y. Shabbat 1:3). People who rely on a lenient minority opinion during the year, due to various pressures, observe the proper, le-khatḥila practice according to most poskim during this period. For example, during this period it is proper to eat only glatt meat and wash mayim aḥaronim before reciting Birkat Ha-mazon.

The Sages said that one should always view himself – and the world as a whole – as being halfway between guilt and innocence. Since both the world and the individual are judged in accordance with the majority of deeds, a person doing one mitzva can tip the scales toward the side of merit for himself and for the whole world. And woe unto him who does one sin; he may have tipped the scales toward the side of guilt for himself and for the whole world. We read (Kohelet 9:18), “A single sin destroys much good.” One sin can withhold so much good from the perpetrator and from the whole world (Kiddushin 40b).

02. Changes to the Amida

Since when reciting the Amida one must see himself as standing before the King, during the Ten Days of Repentance he must make mention of God’s kingship, which is manifest during these days when He judges His world. If one does not make mention of this, it is as though he is paying mere lip-service to God’s kingship, which is revealed during the Ten Days of Repentance. Accordingly, the Sages changed the conclusion of the third berakha of the Amida from the usual “ha-Kel ha-kadosh” (“the holy God”) to “ha-Melekh ha-kadosh” (“the holy King”). Additionally, the berakha of Hashiva Shofteinu (“Restore our Judges”) ends with “ha-Melekh ha-mishpat” (“the King of justice”) instead of “Melekh ohev tzedaka u-mishpat” (“King Who loves righteousness and justice”).

If someone accidentally concluded the third berakha with “ha-Kel ha-kadosh,” and did not realize his mistake almost immediately (tokh kedei dibur, i.e., within the time it takes to say “Shalom alekha rabbi”), he must begin the Amida again, because the first three berakhot are considered one unit, and one who erred in any of the three must return to the beginning of the Amida.^[1] If after finishing the Amida one is uncertain about whether he said “ha-Kel ha-kadosh” or “ha-Melekh ha-kadosh,” he should assume that he said “ha-Kel ha-kadosh” out of habit and must repeat the Amida. However, if he remembers thinking just before reciting the berakha that he must say “ha-Melekh ha-kadosh,” or if he remembers that he inserted “Mi khamokha” (see below), he can assume that he recited “ha-Melekh ha-kadosh,” and need not repeat the Amida (Taz 422:1; MB 582:4).

If one mistakenly concluded the berakha of Hashiva Shofteinu with “Melekh ohev tzedaka u-mishpat” instead of “ha-Melekh ha-mishpat” and did not correct it almost immediately, then according to some Sephardic poskim he has not fulfilled his obligation. Therefore, if he has not yet finished the Amida, he goes back to Hashiva Shofteinu, concludes it correctly, and continues with the Amida. If he has already finished the Amida, he must repeat it from the beginning, but he should stipulate that if he is not actually obligated to repeat it, his prayer should be considered voluntary (SA 118:1; Yeḥaveh Da’at 1:57). In contrast, according to Ashkenazic and some Sephardic poskim, even if he mistakenly concluded “Melekh ohev tzedaka u-mishpat,” he has fulfilled his obligation be-di’avad, since the word “Melekh” is mentioned in this formulation as well. Therefore, even if he did not quickly correct himself, he need not repeat the Amida (Rema 118:1; Ben Ish Ḥai, Nitzavim §19; Kaf Ha-ḥayim ad loc. 1). Since this is the majority custom, it is the appropriate ruling for one who is unsure of his family’s custom.

In addition to the above changes, there are four insertions in the Amida during the Ten Days of Repentance: “Zokhreinu le-ḥayim” in the first berakha, “Mi khamokha” in the second berakha, “U-khetov le-ḥayim” in the berakha of Modim, and “Be-sefer ḥayim” in the final berakha. One who forgot any or all of these additions need not repeat the Amida (SA 582:5).

During the Ten Days of Repentance we recite Avinu Malkeinu during Shaḥarit and Minḥa, as explained in section 6 below.

03. Torah Study and Acts of Kindness

Torah study is an important basis for repentance, for as a result of Torah study, one comes to observe mitzvot, as the Sages said: “Study is greater, for study leads to action” (Kiddushin 40b). The Sages further said (Berakhot 16a) that just as a stream elevates one who immerses in it from a state of impurity to a state of purity, so too, one who enters the tent of Torah to study diligently is elevated from guilt to innocence.

Study must begin with fear of God, as we read, “The beginning of wisdom is the fear of the Lord” (Tehilim 111:10). Our Sages similarly state, “The purpose of wisdom is repentance and good deeds” (Berakhot 17a). Therefore, it is proper for every person to set up a time each day to study works of musar, dedicated to self-improvement and character development (Arizal; Vilna Gaon; MB 603:2). During the month of Elul and the Ten Days of Repentance, it is particularly appropriate to intensify musar study and to resolve to continue it all year long.

In addition, the mitzva of Torah study is the equivalent of all other mitzvot, because it elevates a person more than other mitzvot. All other mitzvot are performed with body or soul, but Torah study occurs in the most elevated parts of a person – mind and soul. One who studies Torah becomes one with God’s will. Since Torah study is the most sublime of all mitzvot, it has a special power to atone for sins. Thus, our Sages say that even if a person has transgressed a prohibition whose punishment is death at the hands of heaven, he can save himself by increasing Torah study. If he was accustomed to study one page, he should study two; if he usually studied one chapter, he should study two. If he does not know how to study, he can help himself by becoming involved with charitable causes (Vayikra Rabba 25:1).

The Rishonim list regimens of fasting and mortifications in penance for specific sins. Aḥaronim explain that these fasts and mortifications are for those who do not toil in Torah study. Those who study Torah assiduously and whose fear of God is greater than their wisdom find atonement and correction through diligent Torah study (Arizal; Sefer Ḥaredim ch. 65; Shlah; BHL 571:2; Noda Bi-Yehuda OḤ 141:35; below 6:7).

1. Ḥayim of Volozhin also writes that Torah study atones for all sins, including very serious ones for which even sacrifices cannot atone (Nefesh Ha-ḥayim 4:31). The midrash states: “If a person committed many sins and was condemned to death [in the heavenly court]…but repented, read from the Torah, Prophets, and Writings, studied Mishna, Midrash, halakhot and aggadot, and apprenticed under the sages – even if a hundred evil decrees had been made against him, God nullifies them” (Tanna De-vei Eliyahu Rabba 5). This accords with what our Sages tell us about the children of Eli. As a punishment for desecrating God’s name in the Mishkan at Shilo, they and their descendants were condemned to die young. No offering could atone for their offense. Nevertheless, when their descendants studied Torah, they lived longer. When they also performed kind deeds, they lived even longer (Rosh Ha-shana 18a).

Jewish custom is to be especially charitable during the Ten Days of Repentance, as the verse states, “Charity saves from death” (Mishlei 11:4). During this period, it is proper for everyone to engage in soul-searching, particularly with regard to kindness and charity. People should recommit to tithing their earnings to support Torah study and the poor. Those who are well-off should extend their charity and give a fifth of their earnings.

04. Interpersonal Sins

One who wrongs his friend should make up with him as soon as possible, as the longer the friend stays hurt, the greater the sin. Nevertheless, if one did not do so because he was negligent, embarrassed, or unable to placate his friend, he must make a special effort to do so before Yom Kippur. The Mishna states, “Yom Kippur atones for sins that are between man and God; however, Yom Kippur does not atone for sins which are interpersonal, until the offender has placated his friend” (Yoma 85b). Even if he were to sacrifice all the animals in the world, and pray and fast extensively, he would be not forgiven until he appeased his friend (Bava Kama 92a).

One who damaged his friend’s goods or his friend’s honor has sinned against both his friend and heaven. Therefore, not only must he placate his friend, he must also confess his transgression to God and resolve not to repeat it. So if a person injured his friend, stole something from him, or damaged his property, he should first pay his friend what he is owed and ask forgiveness for having hurt him. Only afterward should he confess his sin before God. Similarly, someone who embarrassed his friend or spoke of him in a belittling manner must first placate his friend and only then confess before God. If he confessed first, his confession is inadequate. He must confess again after he has made things right with his friend (Rabbeinu Yona, Sha’arei Teshuva 4:18).^[2]

Let us say that a person insulted someone or spoke ill of him in front of others, who might now treat him poorly as a result. The offender must make a point of speaking highly of this person in front of the same people. He must correct himself and explain why he was mistaken when he spoke badly of him (for example, he did not have the complete picture). This is to negate any damage he may have done. Similarly, it is proper for someone who insulted another publicly to ask for forgiveness publicly as well (MT, Laws of Repentance 2:5).

05. Placating and Asking Forgiveness

Someone who is asking for forgiveness must specify his offense. If the wronged party was not aware of the offense, the person requesting forgiveness must confess it to him and ask his forgiveness (Baḥ). However, if he knows that detailing the sin will cause the wronged party pain and embarrassment, it is better that he not specify it (MA; MB 606:3). He should also do his very best to neutralize the impact of the negative things he said. He should make a point of speaking highly of this person to counteract the earlier disparaging things which he said.^[3]

Le-khatḥila, one who has hurt another should ask forgiveness himself. However, if he is too ashamed, or if he thinks that the injured party is more likely to be receptive to someone else, he should ask forgiveness through a middleman (Mateh Ephraim 606:1; MB ad loc. 2).

If the injured party initially refuses to be placated, the penitent should approach him in the company of three people and request forgiveness in front of them. If forgiveness is again withheld, he should try again (with three people). If it is still withheld, he should try yet again (with three people). If the injured party still refuses to forgive, the original offender does not have to do anything further. The unforgiving party is now the sinner. However, if the person hurt was his Torah teacher (even if not his primary one), he should keep going back, even a thousand times, until he attains forgiveness (Yoma 87a; MT Laws of Repentance 2:9; MB 606:7; BHL ad loc.).

The injured party should not be cruel and refuse to forgive. As our Sages state, “If one foregoes injustice [done against him], heaven will forego punishment due to him” (Rosh Ha-shana 17a). If he does not grant forgiveness, his sins will not be forgiven in heaven. However, if his intention is to help the offender by teaching him to be more careful in the future, our Sages allow him to make the sinner request forgiveness several times. Even when the offended party officially refuses to grant forgiveness, in his heart he should immediately stop hating or being angry at the person who hurt him (Rema 606:1; MB ad loc. 9).

If one is concerned that if he forgives, the offender will repeat his offense, he is not required to forgive. Similarly, if one spoke badly of another and seriously damaged his reputation, the injured party is not required to forgive the offender, since some people will have heard the slander and not the retraction. Even so, if the offender truly regrets his action, publicly apologizes, retracts what he said, and does his best to undo the damage he caused, it is proper for a pious and humble person to forgive him. (See Rema 606:1; MB ad loc. 11.)

If the injured party has died, the person who hurt him must bring ten people to his graveside, specify his sin, and confess that he sinned against the God of Israel and this individual. They then declare three times, “You are forgiven” (Yoma 87b; SA 606:2; MB ad loc. 15).

Some people ask forgiveness from all their friends and acquaintances before Yom Kippur. However, this practice is almost meaningless. People fool themselves into thinking that because they are so careful to ask forgiveness from all their friends, this makes them pious. In fact, though, they are acting wickedly, because they are not asking forgiveness from the people they actually hurt. Rather, the main idea is to do soul-searching before Yom Kippur and recall those whom one may have truly hurt. He should then request forgiveness from them (Shlah, Masekhet Rosh Ha-shana, Derekh Ḥayim §151).