10. Unskilled Labor for Mitzva Needs

In order to fulfill a mitzva on the festival, whether it is incumbent upon an individual or a group, unskilled labor may be undertaken. A mitzva need is comparable to other festival needs for which it is permitted to do unskilled labor (Rema 544:1; MB ad loc. 8). In contrast, skilled labor is permitted only to take care of bodily needs on the festival, such as preparing food or fixing the water system (above 11:3-5).

Therefore, one may not write a Torah scroll on Ḥol Ha-mo’ed. It is prohibited to write even one letter, as scribal writing is skilled labor which is permitted only for bodily needs (SA 545:1). However, if a Torah scroll needs an unskilled repair, it may be repaired on Ḥol Ha-mo’ed. This is the case even if the Torah scroll is not needed on Ḥol Ha-mo’ed, since it is permitted to do unskilled labor on Ḥol Ha-mo’ed for a mitzva, even if it does not meet a festival need. Therefore, if a Torah scroll is discovered to have an extra letter, the letter may be erased. If letters are stuck together, they may be separated. If the ink of a couple of letters has faded, they may be re-inked (Sha’arei Teshuva ad loc. 1, citing Panim Me’irot 1:66; MB ad loc. 2; AHS ad loc. 1).

One who is studying Torah may write or type up notes if he knows that doing so will improve his concentration, since it is being done in the service of a mitzva (SA 545:9; above 11:13).

If one wishes to dedicate a Torah scroll on Ḥol Ha-mo’ed, he may not leave the writing of the final letters to Ḥol Ha-mo’ed, since this writing is skilled labor. However, a scribe may outline letters beforehand and they may be filled in by someone else on Ḥol Ha-mo’ed, as this is unskilled labor which is permitted for a mitzva need (AHS 545:5; Sdei Ḥemed, Aseifat Dinim, Ma’arekhet Ḥol Ha-mo’ed §12; Kaf Ha-ḥayim ad loc. 6).

If one is making a brit mila on the day after Yom Tov and cannot prepare all the food after Yom Tov, he may prepare food on Ḥol Ha-mo’ed. Even though normally we do not prepare on Ḥol Ha-mo’ed for the weekday, in this case it is permissible since this is a mitzva need and the labor is unskilled (SSK 67:44).

11. Time-Sensitive Mitzva Needs

Permissible melakha for a mitzva need is normally limited to unskilled labor. However, if the mitzva involved is a time-sensitive one, meaning that if it is not observed immediately the opportunity to do so will be lost, then even skilled labor is permitted. This permit is based on the principle of davar ha-aved (above, section 2). Just as the loss of money is deemed a davar ha-aved, so is the loss of a mitzva. In fact, to avoid losing out on a mitzva we even permit one to do a melakha which could have been done before the festival but was pushed off; he is not penalized (BHL 545:3 s.v. “le-atzmo”). In contrast, if one pushed off doing a melakha before the festival and as a result will now suffer a monetary loss, he is penalized by not being permitted to do the melakha on Ḥol Ha-mo’ed (above, section 3).

Therefore, if a synagogue has only one Torah scroll and it is missing letters, even though its current unusable condition is the result of neglect, the letters may be written on Ḥol Ha-mo’ed to enable a public Torah reading. It is even permissible to sharpen a quill in order to write the necessary letters. Although writing the letters and sharpening the quill are skilled labor, they are considered melakhot undertaken to avoid a loss (since if people do not fill in the letters, they will miss out on the mitzva of reading from the Torah), and so they are permitted on Ḥol Ha-mo’ed (SA 545:2; MB ad loc. 7, 48). Even if there is a synagogue nearby with a kosher Torah scroll, one may still fix the invalid Torah scroll in order to avoid making things more difficult for the community members, who otherwise would have to arrange to transport a Torah scroll from a different synagogue (BH 445:2 s.v. “she-im”).

Similarly, if one did not build a sukka before Sukkot, he may build it on Ḥol Ha-mo’ed. Since this is a time-sensitive mitzva, even skilled labor may be used if necessary. After all, if he does not build the sukka on Ḥol Ha-mo’ed, he will lose out on the mitzva (SA 537:1; BHL s.v. “oseh”). If one has a small sukka and wants to expand it on Ḥol Ha-mo’ed, whether to accommodate guests who do not have a sukka or in order to hold the se’udat mitzva for a brit mila, he may do so even using skilled labor, since these too are time-sensitive mitzvot (BHL 640:6 s.v. “se’udat”).^[8] One may pick a large quantity of aravot on Sukkot and sell them publicly, so that people can fulfill the mitzva (SSK 67:41).

Anything necessary may be done to take proper care of a dead body, as kevod ha-met (dignity of the dead) is a time-sensitive mitzva. Therefore, shrouds may be sewn (which is skilled labor), a grave may be dug, and death notices (to publicize the time of the funeral) may be printed. However, one may not publicly do certain melakhot that eyewitnesses will not know are being done for one who passed away. This would include cutting stones for the tombstone and cutting down trees for the coffin (SA 547:10; MB ad loc. 19; SSK ch. 67 n. 184; see above 10:5 about a funeral on Ḥol Ha-mo’ed).

12. Building Synagogues, Schools, and a Ma’akeh

One may not build a synagogue on Ḥol Ha-mo’ed even if the community has nowhere nice to pray, and even if by building on Ḥol Ha-mo’ed, they will be able to complete the building in time to use it during the festival. It is still prohibited since building the synagogue involves skilled labor (Rema 544:1; see above, 11:18, for circumstances under which a non-Jew may build it).

In contrast, if there is an active synagogue where a problem with the electricity or air conditioning is making people very uncomfortable, it may be repaired by a professional. Since the synagogue is active and people are suffering because of the malfunction, the repair is considered a bodily need (SSK 68:9 and notes 27, 30).

Just as one may not build a synagogue on Ḥol Ha-mo’ed, so too, one may not build or repair schools or other public buildings, since doing so involves skilled labor, which is permissible only to take care of bodily needs on the festival. However, if a school building needs painting or repair (whether the building itself or the furnishings), the work may be done on Ḥol Ha-mo’ed, on condition that delaying the work until after Ḥol Ha-mo’ed would mean the classrooms or beit midrash would be unusable for a while and would cause Torah study time to be lost. This loss qualifies as a davar ha-aved. If possible, the work should be done by a Jewish worker lacking food, or by a non-Jew. It should also be done as discreetly as possible (Sdei Ḥemed, Aseifat Dinim, Ma’arekhet Ḥol Ha-mo’ed §2; MB 543:1; SSK 67:3-4).

If a roof guard rail (ma’akeh) has come down on Ḥol Ha-mo’ed, the railing may be fixed using unskilled labor, because putting up a railing is a mitzva. As we have seen, it is permitted to do unskilled labor on Ḥol Ha-mo’ed for a mitzva need. If it cannot be fixed with unskilled labor, the roof should be sealed off. However, if it cannot be sealed off and people might go up to the roof, thus endangering themselves, then putting up the railing is considered a time-sensitive mitzva, and may be done even using skilled labor (SA 540:1; BHL s.v “ve-khen im”).

13. Rabbinic Courts and Documents

Rabbinic courts do not convene on Shabbat or Yom Tov out of concern that the court would need to write down the claims of each side, thus transgressing a Torah prohibition (Beitza 37a). However, courts do convene on Ḥol Ha-mo’ed, and hear all cases, because normal writing for the sake of a mitzva is permissible on Ḥol Ha-mo’ed, and for a time-sensitive mitzva even skilled writing is permitted. Despite the mitzva to rejoice on the festival, the courts are still allowed to hand down rulings. In the past, when the courts had the power to do so, this included carrying out sentences of lashes and even the death penalty. This served the communal need to establish a just society and uproot wickedness from the Jewish people. In addition, in order to avoid delaying the atonement of the sinner that court punishments provide, they were administered on Ḥol Ha-mo’ed (MK 14b; SA 545:10).

Nowadays, although a rabbinic court neither hears capital cases nor administers lashes, it may hear cases which need to be dealt with on Ḥol Ha-mo’ed. Therefore, divorce documents, ḥalitza documents, and financial settlements may be dealt with then. Monetary disputes may be resolved and their resolutions written up. The two sides involved in a case may introduce preliminary materials, and their positions may be written up. If two sides agree to present their case before a specific beit din, a document to this effect may be written up and signed as well. If a borrower has not repaid his debt, his property’s value may be assessed. The lender may then be given his due in property, and a document may be written up to attest to it. This ensures that people will be aware that ownership of the property has been transferred to the lender. Child support provisions are written up on Ḥol Ha-mo’ed, as are wills and documents gifting people with property (MK 18b; SA 545:5).

The reason these are all allowed is because they meet communal needs. Even though each case deals with private individuals, such cases come up frequently. If dealing with them is delayed until after Ḥol Ha-mo’ed, it is possible that in the meantime the two sides will resume fighting. Avoiding this is a communal need (MT, Laws of Yom Tov 7:12; Responsa Rivash §390). If necessary, even skilled writing may be done. The justification for doing so is that sometimes writing down settlements is a davar ha-aved, since if they are not written down immediately the sides are likely to renege on agreements already reached (Tosafot). Occasionally, writing down these agreements actually pertains to a bodily need, as doing so may mean that one will be able to collect the money needed to buy food for the festival meals (Pri Megadim, Mishbetzot Zahav 545:7; MB ad loc. 20; see above 11:13).

For these reasons, a bank may open on Ḥol Ha-mo’ed. True, le-khatḥila it is preferable not to do banking on Ḥol Ha-mo’ed, barring great necessity. Therefore, banks should reduce their Ḥol Ha-mo’ed hours of service. Similarly, their clients should refrain from transactions which can be delayed until after the festival. However, when necessary, clients may use the bank, such as to deposit checks that otherwise might get lost or might expire, to withdraw cash for festival expenses, or to pay bills that carry late fees (SSK 68:2).

Similarly, postal workers may open the post office, because it serves a communal need. There may be letters in the mail whose late arrival may cause a loss. Postal workers may do skilled labor if necessary.

It is a Torah commandment to lend money to one who needs it, and it is a mitzva to document the loan. The documentation is important as it avoids any future disagreements about the amount or terms of the loan due to forgetfulness or dishonesty (SA ḤM 70:1). However, it is preferable not to borrow money on Ḥol Ha-mo’ed, in order to avoid the need to write a loan document then (SA 545:6). Nevertheless, if one must take out a loan in order to buy festival necessities or to avoid a loss, one may give him a loan and document it. If necessary, the writing may even be done by a professional (ibid.; MB ad loc. 36-37).

01. Shavu’ot and Its Relationship with Pesaḥ

There are four names for the festival of Shavu’ot:

1. Shavu’ot, as we read: “Then you shall observe the Festival of Weeks (Ḥag Shavu’ot) for the Lord your God” (Devarim 16:10).
2. The Harvest Festival (Ḥag Ha-katzir), as we read: “the Festival of the Harvest, of the first fruits of your work, of what you sow in the field” (Shemot 23:16).
3. The Day of the First Fruits (Yom Ha-bikurim), as we read: “on the day of the first fruits, your Festival of Weeks, when you bring an offering of new grain to the Lord” (Bamidbar 28:26).
4. The Gathering (Atzeret), the festival’s name in rabbinic literature.

We will begin by explaining its primary name – Shavu’ot.

The timing of Shavu’ot is unique. All other festivals have a defined date – Pesaḥ starts on the fifteenth of Nisan, Rosh Ha-shana on the first of Tishrei, Yom Kippur on the tenth of Tishrei, and Sukkot on the fifteenth of Tishrei. However, Shavu’ot has no assigned date. Its date is dependent upon Sefirat Ha-omer. The omer offering was brought on the second day of Pesaḥ. From that day, we count seven weeks, for a total of 49 days. The following day (the fiftieth) is celebrated as Shavu’ot. Thus we read: “And from the day on which you bring the sheaf (omer) of elevation offering – the day after the Sabbath – you shall count off seven weeks. They must be complete: you must count until the day after the seventh week – fifty days, then you shall bring an offering of new grain to the Lord” (Vayikra 23:15-16). Similarly, we read: “You shall count off seven weeks; start to count the seven weeks when the sickle is first put to the standing grain. Then you shall observe the Festival of Weeks for the Lord your God” (Devarim 16:9-10). True, nowadays Shavu’ot is always on the sixth of Sivan, but this is because we have a set calendar. In the past, when rabbinic courts were comprised of properly ordained judges (musmakhim), they would sanctify the new moon, determining Rosh Ḥodesh based on testimony as to the moon’s appearance. Under those circumstances, the festival was sometimes celebrated on the fifth or seventh of Sivan.

Accordingly, the timing of Shavu’ot depends upon the timing of Pesaḥ. The implication is that only by starting with Pesaḥ can we get to Shavu’ot and the giving of the Torah. Two interconnected principles were revealed on Pesaḥ – the Jewish people’s uniqueness, and simple faith (emuna peshuta). When God chose Israel as His special nation, smote the Egyptians, and led His nation to freedom, He demonstrated that there is a Creator Who runs the world. Jews have this simple faith. However, for this faith to reach its full expression and allow us to help the world progress toward redemption, we need the Torah as well, for it contains the values, commandments, and guidance necessary to perfect the world. This is the meaning of what we say in the berakhot on the Torah: “Who chose us from among all the nations” refers to Pesaḥ, while “and gave us His Torah” refers to Shavu’ot. Without the natural and basic Jewish faith revealed on Pesaḥ, it would be impossible to arrive at the deep and complex faith represented by Shavu’ot. Conversely, our natural faith and our uniqueness could not survive without the Torah given on Shavu’ot (see Peninei Halakha: Pesaḥ 1:1 and Zemanim 2:1-2).

God gave us the festivals of Pesaḥ and Shavu’ot so that we may relive the miraculous events of the Exodus, and to once again remind us of the uniqueness of the Jews and simple faith. These realizations allow us to use the time period of Sefirat Ha-omer to gradually ascend to the sacred day on which the Torah was given, when our faith becomes whole and complete. Each year we are able to rise higher and higher. Ultimately, the whole world will be filled with righteousness and justice, mercy and compassion, and the land will be filled with the knowledge of God.

02. Preparation and Purification During Sefirat Ha-omer

The relationship between God and the Jewish people is compared to that of a bride and groom, as we read: “As a bridegroom rejoices over his bride, so will your God rejoice over you” (Yeshayahu 62:5). In a similar vein, we read: “Thus said the Lord: I accounted to your favor the devotion of your youth, your love as a bride – how you followed Me in the wilderness, in a land not sown” (Yirmiyahu 2:2). The Exodus from Egypt is considered an act of betrothal, because with it, God separated us from all the nations and sanctified us by making us His special nation. The day of the giving of the Torah is likened to a wedding day (Ta’anit 26b) because through the Torah our lives are intertwined with God.

The Sages explain that even after the Jews left Egypt they still could not receive the Torah, as during their enslavement they had descended to the forty-ninth level of impurity. Just as a menstruating woman needs to count seven days before she can immerse and purify herself, so too the Jews needed to count seven weeks in order to purify themselves from the impurity of Egypt and become fit to connect with God (based on Zohar, Emor, p. 97).

The number seven indicates the complete manifestation of something, as the world was created in seven days. Indeed, every physical entity has six sides – four lateral sides, a top, and a bottom – as well as a seventh aspect: its essence. Man has seven facets as well, which is why it takes seven days to go from a state of defilement to a state of purity. For seven days, one prepares every facet of selfhood to rise from the defilement to purity. The same is true of purification for sacred endeavors in this world, like eating teruma and sacrificial foods and a woman’s purification for her husband. However, receiving the divine Torah, whose lofty status belongs to the supernal worlds, requires a much deeper count: seven weeks instead of seven days. In this count, each of the seven numbers is manifested through all seven of its facets. Thus, our purification to receive the Torah is complete. Every aspect of our character undergoes refinement and expresses its yearning and anticipation for receiving the Torah. We were thus able to achieve the highest heights, beyond nature, and receive the divine Torah, through which we are able to perfect and elevate the world, bringing it closer to redemption.

Throughout those seven weeks, Israel eagerly awaited and anxiously anticipated receiving the Torah. A midrash relates that when Moshe announced to Israel that after leaving Egypt they would worship God at Mount Sinai and receive the Torah, they asked him, “When will this take place?” Moshe answered, “After fifty days.” Then, due to their great love for God, they counted every day, saying, “One day has passed,” “two days have passed,” and so on, every day. Because of their love and anticipation for the Torah, it seemed like a long time to them (Shibolei Ha-leket §236). Because of this, their Torah endured, as the Sages state: “If one’s fear of sin precedes his wisdom, his wisdom will endure. If his wisdom precedes his fear of sin, his wisdom will not endure” (m. Avot 3:9).

The preparation and purification leading up to Shavu’ot are so important that they give it its primary name – Ḥag Ha-shavu’ot. As we read: “You shall count off seven weeks; start to count the seven weeks when the sickle is first put to the standing grain. Then you shall observe the Festival of Weeks for the Lord your God” (Devarim 16:9-10). Similarly, we read: “You shall observe the Festival of Weeks, of the first fruits of the wheat harvest” (Shemot 34:22).

Since preparation is so important, one should be careful not to begin Ma’ariv of Shavu’ot before tzeit ha-kokhavim, so that every bit of the seven-week preparation period may be utilized, and the preparation for receiving the Torah can be completed (MB 494:1).

03. The Time of the Giving of the Torah

From the time of creation, the earth was filled with trepidation, for “God made a condition with the works of creation, saying: ‘If the Jews accept the Torah, you will endure; if not, I will return you to primordial chaos’” (Shabbat 88a). This idea is also expressed in a midrash on the verse “And God saw all that He had made, and found it very good. And there was evening and there was morning, the sixth day” (Bereishit 1:31). According to this midrash, the definite article “the” is prefixed to “sixth day” to teach us that the existence of the world depends upon a specific sixth day – the sixth day of Sivan, when the Jews arrived at Mount Sinai and accepted the Torah.

Actually, we were given the Torah on the fifty-first day of Sefirat Ha-omer. According to the Gemara, God originally commanded Moshe to tell the Jews to purify themselves for two days before the giving of the Torah on Friday. Moshe added a day, instructing the Jews to purify themselves for three days. God went along with Moshe and waited until Shabbat to reveal Himself on Mount Sinai (Shabbat 86b-87a). This remarkable account teaches us how important the Oral Torah is. It mediates between us and the exalted Written Torah; without the Oral Torah, the Written Torah could not have been revealed. Therefore, even the giving of the Torah itself was postponed for a day because of the Oral Torah, that is, the interpretation of Moshe Rabbeinu.

However, this would seem to present us with a difficulty. As Shulḥan Arukh (494:1) states, we refer to Shavu’ot as “Zeman matan Torateinu” (the season of the giving of our Torah). Why do we call it that if Shavu’ot is not actually the day the Torah was given? Shavu’ot takes place on the fiftieth day of the omer, while the Gemara above states that we received the Torah on the fifty-first day! The answer is that in truth, from the heavenly point of view, right after the completion of Sefirat Ha-omer the sacred day of the giving of the Torah arrived, and God blessed us with the Torah (in potential). It was only from the human point of view that we needed an additional day before we were capable of receiving it (in actuality). Nevertheless, for future generations, the giving of the Torah is commemorated on the day that God had originally ordained and sanctified, when the Torah was given to us in potentiality (Maharal, Tiferet Yisrael ch. 27).^[1]

04. Ḥag Ha-Katzir

The names of the festivals reflect the agricultural seasons in which they take place. Thus we read: “Three times a year, you shall hold a festival for Me: You shall observe the Festival of Unleavened Bread (Pesaḥ) – eating unleavened bread for seven days as I have commanded you – at the set time in the month of Aviv, for in it you went forth from Egypt; and none shall appear before Me empty-handed; the Festival of the Harvest (Shavu’ot), of the first fruits of your work, of what you sow in the field; and the Festival of Ingathering (Sukkot) at the end of the year, when you gather in the results of your work from the field” (Shemot 23:14-17). Pesaḥ is celebrated in the spring, when everything begins growing. Shavu’ot is celebrated at the completion of the harvest and the beginning of the fruit-picking. Sukkot is celebrated when all the year’s fruit has been gathered. The natural processes that take place in this world reflect the spiritual processes that take place in the supernal world. The festivals disclose the spiritual content of this world and elevate nature’s yearly cycle. Pesaḥ takes place during a season of new beginnings and renewal. Therefore, it is at this time that we left Egypt and became a nation. Shavu’ot takes place during a season when a process of growth has peaked. Therefore, it is at this time that we received the Torah. Sukkot takes place during a season of summation, when we manifest the privilege of living our lives in the shelter of God’s providence (above 1:2).

The holiday of Shavu’ot is also the day on which the fruits of the tree are judged (RH 16a), because the first of the fruits start to ripen at about this time. Various fruits continue to ripen over the course of the summer, up until around Sukkot. On Shavu’ot, God passes judgment on the crop of fruit and determines its quantity and quality.

Thus we see that Shavu’ot is a type of Rosh Ha-shana for plant life, both fruits and grains. As we just explained, Shavu’ot is the judgment day for fruits. Grains, the staple food of humanity, finish growing then: barley begins ripening around Pesaḥ time, and other grains continue to ripen until Shavu’ot, when the wheat crop matures. Accordingly, Shavu’ot is called the Harvest Festival.

Ezra ordained that we read the curses at the end of Vayikra just before Shavu’ot and the curses at the end of Devarim just before Rosh Ha-shana as an expression of hope that the current year’s curses have come to an end, leading people to repent in hopes of assuring a blessed new year (Megilla 31b). Nowadays, though, in practice, the curses are usually read two weeks before Shavu’ot and two weeks before Rosh Ha-shana, because we do not want to place these curses in such close proximity to the festivals (Tosafot ad loc.; R. Goren, Torat Ha-mo’adim, p. 437).

On the Harvest Festival, farmers harvest the fruits of their labor; they finish harvesting the grain and begin picking the fruit. Similarly, from a spiritual perspective, on Shavu’ot the Jewish people harvested the fruits of their ancestors’ labor and were privileged to receive the Torah. Two processes were brought to completion on Shavu’ot with the giving of the Torah: first, the lengthy process that began when our ancestors started to follow God’s ways, and which continued with the self-sacrifice of the generations enslaved in Egypt; second, the shorter process of spiritual growth during Sefirat Ha-omer.

05. Yom Ha-Bikurim

Shavu’ot is also referred to as Yom Ha-bikurim, as we read: “On the day of the first fruits (yom ha-bikurim), your Festival of Weeks, when you bring an offering of new grain to the Lord, you shall observe a sacred occasion: you shall not do any melakha of labor” (Bamidbar 28:26).

There are two meanings of bikurim on Shavu’ot. First, Shavu’ot was the time for the offering of shtei ha-leḥem (two loaves), which was referred to as bikurim (first fruits), because it was the first minḥa offering from the year’s new wheat. Following this offering, the Jews were permitted to bring further offerings from the new grain. Earlier, on Pesaḥ, the omer offering permitted Jews to eat from the year’s new grain, but not to bring sacrifices from it (m. Menaḥot 10:6). There is a unique law which pertains to the shtei ha-leḥem offering. Even though leaven was forbidden in the Temple all year long, these two loaves were leavened. Though they were not actually placed on the altar, they were eaten by the Kohanim (see section 7 below).

The second meaning of Yom Ha-bikurim is that with the shtei ha-leḥem offering, the time had arrived for the mitzva of bikurim. In Temple times, this mitzva was relevant to anyone with a field where any of the seven species grew. The farmer was required to take the first fruits to the Temple and present them to the Kohanim. When he saw the first of his grain or fruit begin to ripen in his field, he tied a ribbon around them and declared: “These are first fruits.” When they finished ripening, he prepared them to be brought to the Temple. All of the people from the periphery who were ascending to Jerusalem for the festival gathered together and slept in the streets of their town. When dawn broke, the appointed leader announced: “Let’s get up and go up to Zion, to the house of the Lord our God.” They traveled in a procession of decorated carriages, accompanied by music. When they got close to Jerusalem, they sent messengers ahead to inform the residents that they were about to enter the city. Important Kohanim and other dignitaries went out to greet them. When they passed through the streets of Jerusalem, workmen stopped working and greeted them: “Our brothers from such-and-such: welcome.” They then ascended to the Temple Mount, singing and dancing, with the baskets of bikurim on their shoulders. Each pilgrim presented his basket to a Kohen and proclaimed: “I acknowledge this day before the Lord your God that I have entered the land that the Lord swore to our fathers to assign us” (Devarim 26:3). The Kohen then took the basket and placed it before the altar. The pilgrim continued reciting the formula as written in the Torah, including the litany of travails that the Jews experienced from the beginning of their history until their redemption, and concluded: “The Lord freed us from Egypt by a mighty hand, by an outstretched arm and awesome power, and by signs and portents. He brought us to this place and gave us this land, a land flowing with milk and honey. Therefore I now bring the first fruits of the soil which You, O Lord, have given me” (ibid. vv. 8-10). Together with offering bikurim, pilgrims generally also offered a celebratory shelamim (m. Bikurim 3:1-6).

The time to bring bikurim began with the shtei ha-leḥem on Shavu’ot and ended on Ḥanuka (m. Bikurim 1:3, 6). But the first fruits of the wheat and barley crops were brought on Shavu’ot, leading to its name of Yom Ha-bikurim.

06. Atzeret

In rabbinic literature, the festival of Shavu’ot is called Atzeret. At first glance, this is surprising. The Torah refers to the last day of Pesaḥ as Atzeret, and refers to the day following the seven days of Sukkot as Shemini Atzeret. Why did the Sages choose to ignore biblical precedent and refer to Shavu’ot as Atzeret?

Let us explore the meaning of the word. “Atzeret” is related to “atzara,” stopping. An Atzeret is a time when many people refrain (i.e., stop themselves) from doing other things, and gather together to celebrate. They then internalize and absorb the messages that the celebration is meant to convey. This helps us to understand why, at the conclusions of Pesaḥ and Sukkot, the Torah prescribes an additional Yom Tov. It is meant as a meaningful send-off for all the pilgrims celebrating near the Temple. It helped them internalize and hold on to their experiences during the holy festival. Even if one missed out on going to Jerusalem, he was required to stop working on the final day of Yom Tov. He needed to internalize all of his spiritual accomplishments and the joy he experienced during the festival, which would then strengthen and elevate him during all the upcoming weekdays.

There was no greater Atzeret in world history than the revelation at Sinai, when all Jews united to accept the Torah. Thus we read: “Israel encamped (va-yiḥan, in the singular) there in front of the mountain” (Shemot 19:2) – as one person with one heart (Rashi). All the other encampments are recorded in the plural, as in every community there are always arguments and disagreements. Only then and there, facing the mountain with the intention of accepting the Torah, were all united. This is the meaning of R. Akiva’s statement: “‘Love your fellow as you love yourself’ (Vayikra 19:18) is a vital principle of the Torah” (Sifra, Kedoshim). It is through the Torah that love and unity are revealed among the Jews, and it is through unity that the Torah is revealed. It was not only the Jews of that generation who were present at Sinai and accepted the Torah, but the souls of all Jews of all times, including those of all future converts. Acceptance of the Torah finally put an end to the defilement which had adhered to them as a result of the sin of Adam and Ḥava (see Shabbat 146a).

The Torah itself refers to the day of Matan Torah as Yom Ha-kahal (the day of assembly), meaning the time when the whole community gathered together, as we read: “the exact words that the Lord had addressed to you out of the fire on the day of the assembly” (Devarim 9:10; see ibid. 10:4 and 18:9).

Actually, the name Shavu’ot has something in common with the meaning of Atzeret, because it indicates summing up and pulling together all the spiritual achievements reached while counting the seven weeks. Since the omer count begins on Pesaḥ, Shavu’ot turns out to be the finale and conclusion of the process that begins with Pesaḥ.

We see that the Sages did not change anything by calling Shavu’ot Atzeret, as Shavu’ot is indeed a festival of gathering and summing up. The Torah’s preference for the name Shavu’ot emphasizes the preparations the Jews underwent before Matan Torah. In contrast, the Sages’ preference for the name Atzeret emphasizes the Jews’ gathering together to absorb the divine overflow that God grants us at the conclusion of the omer period.

07. Extra Joy – Spiritual and Physical

The joy on Shavu’ot is intense and unique. Therefore, as we saw above (1:6), even R. Eliezer concedes that on Shavu’ot one must have a festive meal, because this is the day on which the Torah was given. This is despite the fact that when it comes to other festivals, he is of the opinion that people who are capable of dedicating the day to studying Torah should do so, eating something only so that they will not suffer (Pesaḥim 68b). Since the Torah’s purpose is to perfect the physical world as well as the spiritual world, the joy with which we celebrate receiving the Torah must manifest itself not only spiritually but also physically, through eating and drinking. When improving the world includes both body and soul, it shows that nothing is cut off or removed from God. There are deep insights that are hidden within the sensate body and that can be understood only when the body and the soul coalesce. Therefore, true closeness with God involves both body and soul. Similarly, in the future, when the dead are resurrected, the soul will once again be embodied so that its divinity will be fully revealed at all levels (Shlah, Masekhet Shavu’ot, Ner Mitzvah §9 and Torah Or §19).

Similarly, the Gemara tells a story about a pious person who fasted every day but three: Shavu’ot, Purim, and the day before Yom Kippur. It continues that R. Yosef instructed his household to prepare a particularly choice meal for Shavu’ot, explaining that he was able to reach his remarkable spiritual level only in the merit of the Torah. Therefore, it was appropriate for him to be especially happy on Shavu’ot (Pesaḥim 68b).

Accordingly, we must make extra efforts to maximize our enjoyment of Shavu’ot, as Torah perfects even the physical aspects of life. The special Shavu’ot offering, the shtei ha-leḥem, which was made from ḥametz, alludes to this idea. As we know, ḥametz alludes to arrogance and the evil impulse; the Torah is a remedy for the evil impulse, and so we symbolically sacrifice it on Shavu’ot. Our Sages proclaim that Torah is “an elixir of life” that can transform every potential threat into something positive. Thus the Gemara describes God as saying to the Jews: “My children, I created the evil inclination and I created the Torah as an antidote (tavlin). If you occupy yourselves with Torah, you will escape the clutches of the evil inclination” (Kiddushin 30b). The use of the word “tavlin” (which literally means “spice”) teaches us that the Torah does not negate the evil inclination, but “seasons” it, sublimating it into something positive. The custom on Shavu’ot of eating dairy and honey (in addition to other more usual Yom Tov fare) can be interpreted similarly. These foods, which originate in something impure (as explained below in section 14), are transformed into something pure and tasty. In this, they express the special properties of the Torah.

08. Shavu’ot Night Learning

Many joyfully study Torah all night long on Shavu’ot. The reason for this custom is explained in the Zohar: “The early pious ones did not sleep that night, but would busy themselves with Torah…thus when the rabbis gathered at the home of R. Shimon b. Yoḥai on Shavu’ot night, he said: ‘Let us fix the bride’s jewelry so that tomorrow she will be properly adorned before the king.’ Fortunate is the lot of the learned, when the king asks the queen: ‘Who fixed your jewelry and burnished your crown?’ There is no one in the world who knows how to fix the bride’s jewelry other than the scholars; fortunate is their lot in this world and the next” (vol. 3, 98a). Elsewhere the Zohar recounts that R. Shimon and all the rabbis were joyfully studying Torah on Shavu’ot night. Each of them shared original insights, and R. Shimon rejoiced along with them. R. Shimon said to them: “My children, fortunate is your lot. Tomorrow the bride will enter the wedding canopy and only you will accompany her. All those now preparing the bride and sharing her joy will be written in the Book of Remembrance. God will bless them with the 70 blessings and crowns of the supernal world” (vol. 1, 8a).

In order to understand the Zohar, we should clarify that the day of Matan Torah is referred to as a wedding day. It is then that God and the Jewish people formed a special relationship, as do a bride and groom when they get married (Ta’anit 26b). Each year on Shavu’ot, Matan Torah is revisited, and the Jewish people once again renew their relationship with God as if they were bride and groom. According to the kabbalists, studying Torah on Shavu’ot night prepares the Jewish people to receive the Torah in the most delightful way. When the morning arrives, they ascend toward God, deepening and intensifying their connection with Him. As a result, they merit an abundance of Torah, life, and blessing throughout the year.

The holy Arizal said that if one studies Torah all night long on Shavu’ot without sleeping at all, he is guaranteed to live out the year, and is protected from harm all year long, for all of human life hinges on the Torah.

Another explanation is offered for this custom. On the day when the Jews received the Torah, they overslept. Moshe our teacher had to wake them up to receive the Torah, as we read: “Moshe led the people out of the camp toward God, and they took their places at the foot of the mountain” (Shemot 19:17). This was a failure on the part of the people. They neither prepared themselves properly for Matan Torah, nor experienced the appropriate anticipation (Shir Ha-shirim Rabba 1:56). In order to make up for this sin, we study Torah all night on Shavu’ot, as we long for and anticipate the light of Matan Torah, which is revealed anew each year on Shavu’ot (MA §494).

At first, only the pious few would stay up and study Torah all night. Around 400 years ago, thanks to the Arizal’s statement above, the custom to stay up studying all night started to spread and became widely observed. The kabbalists emphatically insisted that those who stay up all night must dedicate the time to intensive Torah study, and not waste time on frivolous matters (Ben Ish Ḥai, Year 1, Bamidbar §3).

In any case, following this custom is not obligatory. If it is difficult for one to stay up all night studying Torah, he may go to sleep. Even some great rabbis preferred to sleep on Shavu’ot night. They evaluated the situation and decided that if they remained awake all night, the loss would outweigh the gain: they would not be able to focus properly on praying in the morning, or they would not be alert enough at night to learn productively, or they would need to catch up on their sleep later on and learn less Torah, or they would not be able to enjoy the rest of the festival properly on account of exhaustion.

On the other hand, those who do stay up all night feel that even if their Torah study is not of the highest caliber, and it is difficult to focus on the morning prayers, this holy custom gives expression to love of God and love of Torah. It has the special advantage of showing dedication to God’s glory. Such dedication enhances the glory of the Jewish people as well. Each person should choose the practice that will allow him to serve God best.

09. What to Study

There are two customs regarding what material to study on Shavu’ot night, both of which are perfectly fine. The first custom is the one established by the kabbalists and called Tikun Leil Shavu’ot. According to this custom, one recites the first three and last three verses of every parsha in the Torah. Sections particularly relevant to the festival, such as those that describe Matan Torah and the Ten Commandments, are recited in their entirety. After the Torah verses, the first and last three verses of each book of the Prophets and the Writings are recited. Afterward, the first and last mishna of every tractate is recited, though some do not recite mishnayot. Afterward all 613 mitzvot are enumerated, followed by midrashim about the giving of the Torah. This is followed by Idra Rabba and other Zohar passages. In addition to those who always follow kabbalistic customs, other communities have adopted this routine as well, and it was the custom of the Vilna Gaon, Ḥatam Sofer, and R. Eliyahu David Rabinowitz-Teomim (Aderet). Some maintain that this order of study should be done with a minyan (Shlah; Ḥida).^[2]

The second custom is that each person should learn whatever he wants, as the Sages state: “A person best learns the area of Torah that his heart desires” (AZ 19b). Many yeshiva students study Gemara, as they do during most of their study time. Others choose to study texts related to the value of Torah or the sanctity of the day. It is told that the author of Terumat Ha-deshen, Rabbi Israel Isserlein (who lived about 600 years ago) studied Smak (Sefer Mitzvot Katan) and sometimes Rambam’s Laws of Talmud Torah. Some prefer to study Rambam’s Sefer Ha-mitzvot. Our master Rav Kook would give a lengthy class on Shavu’ot night based on Rambam’s Sefer Ha-mitzvot. Others choose to study topics of interest to them so that they will find it easier to concentrate despite their exhaustion.

10. Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Other Laws for Those Who Remain Awake All Night

Even one who did not sleep at night recites the morning berakhot (Birkhot Ha-shaḥar). Since they are meant to express our thanks for all the good that we experience daily, they are recited even by one who does not benefit personally from something specific they mention (Peninei Halakha: Prayer 9:3). Nevertheless, there are a few specific berakhot whose recitation is subject to dispute in these circumstances.

All agree that one must perform netilat yadayim before praying Shaḥarit, but there is disagreement as to whether the berakha is recited over it. According to Ashkenazim, the best way to handle this is to go to the bathroom before praying, and touch some part of the body which is normally covered and can be assumed to have become sweaty. Doing so obligates him to wash his hands with a berakha. However, according to Sephardim, even in such a case he should not recite a berakha over the washing (Peninei Halakha: Prayer 8:1 n. 1).

In terms of Birkhot Ha-Torah, all agree that one who slept for at least half an hour during the day, prior to the night, recites the berakhot in the morning. According to the vast majority of poskim, one who did not sleep at all still recites the berakhot. However, since there are a few poskim who feel he should not recite them, le-khatḥila it is best for him to hear the berakhot recited by one who did sleep. Both people should have in mind that the reciter is fulfilling the obligation of the listener (see Peninei Halakha: Prayer 10:7).

Some maintain that only one who slept may recite the berakhot of Elokai Neshama and Ha-ma’avir Sheina. Therefore, it is preferable for one who did not sleep at all to hear them from a friend who did sleep and who will have him in mind. If there is no one present to recite the berakhot for him, according to most poskim he should recite them himself. This is the custom of Sephardim and some Ashkenazim. Other Ashkenazim recite these berakhot without the name of God, due to the uncertainty. If an Ashkenazic Jew does not know what his custom is, he may follow the majority practice and recite the berakhot himself.

To summarize: The custom of most communities is that those who stay awake all night recite Birkhot Ha-shaḥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah. Those who are meticulous make sure to listen to Birkhot Ha-Torah, Elokai Neshama, and Ha-ma’avir Sheina from one who slept, if at all possible (see Peninei Halakha: Prayer 9:6).

As far as the timing, halakha mandates that these berakhot be recited in proximity to Shaḥarit. According to Kabbala, the custom is to say Birkhot Ha-shaḥar after midnight and Birkhot Ha-Torah after dawn (Kaf Ha-ḥayim 46:49; see Peninei Halakha: Prayer 9:5 n. 4).^[3]

During the night, one may eat and drink as much as he likes. Once dawn (alot ha-shaḥar) has arrived, he may not eat or drink even coffee or juice. One who had begun eating or drinking before dawn must stop. Water is the only beverage that may be drunk after dawn. In the half-hour before dawn, one may not sit down to a meal, lest it extend past dawn. Included in this prohibition is eating bread or cake that is more than the volume of an egg. However, one may snack on anything, including fruits, vegetables, and grain-based cooked (as opposed to baked, which are considered cakes or bread) dishes (Peninei Halakha: Prayer 12:8).

Those who are up all night should begin Pesukei De-zimra 30 or 40 minutes before sunrise, so that they will reach the Amida at sunrise. Praying at this time is known as praying ke-vatikin, and is considered ideal (Peninei Halakha: Prayer 11:1-2, 5-6).

11. Reading the Ten Commandments from the Torah and Whether to Stand

Our Sages ordained that the Torah reading on Shavu’ot be about the revelation at Mount Sinai and the giving of the Ten Commandments. The haftara is from the beginning of Yeḥezkel, where the heavenly chariot is described (Megilla 31a; SA 494:1). As on all festivals, there are five aliyot (Megilla 21a). The original rule was to take out only one Torah scroll from the ark, and the maftir was one of the five people called up to read from it. However, the Ge’onim record the custom of taking out two Torah scrolls. Five people read from the first scroll, as described in the Mishna, and then maftir is read from the second scroll. The maftir is from Bamidbar and describes the festival offerings. According to the Gemara (Megilla 31a), the rationale behind this is that “God said: ‘For when the Temple no longer exists, I established [the texts about] the sacrificial order. Whenever the Jews read them, I consider it as if they offered the sacrifices, and forgive all their sins’” (Rosh; Ran; Beit Yosef 488:3; see above 2:8 n. 8).

Our Sages tell us that the Torah reading on Shavu’ot describing Matan Torah is especially important. “God said to the Jews: ‘My children, read this portion every year, and I will consider it as if you are standing before Sinai and receiving the Torah’” (Pesikta De-Rav Kahana §12).

On account of this, the custom on Shavu’ot is to read the Ten Commandments with the festive (“upper”) cantillation (ta’am elyon). When reading with the usual cantillation, one pauses at the end of each verse; when reading with the festive cantillation, one pauses at the end of each commandment. For example, the commandment to remember the Sabbath day extends over four verses, but it is read as one long verse with the festive cantillation. Likewise, there is a single verse that contains four commandments: “Do not murder,” “Do not commit adultery,” “Do not steal,” and “Do not bear false witness.” Normally they are read as one verse, but in the festive cantillation they are read as if they are four separate verses. This different division of verses affects the cantillation of so many words that a slightly different tune was established for reading according to this division (BHL 494:3). All agree that on Shavu’ot, the Ten Commandments are read with the ta’am elyon. Although there used to be various customs as to how to read them during the year in the normal cycle of Torah readings, nowadays at all public Torah readings it is standard to read the Ten Commandments with the festive cantillation.

Many stand during the reading of the Ten Commandments, as a remembrance of the awesome and magnificent event it describes. Listening to a public reading of the Ten Commandments is considered to be greeting the Divine Presence. The custom of standing is first mentioned in the time of the Rishonim about 800 years ago, but has become widespread only in the last 200 years or so. All Ashkenazim and some Sephardim follow this custom. Some object to it, because the Sages of the Gemara chose not to require the daily recitation of the Ten Commandments together with the Shema. They felt that this way, people would be less likely to be led astray by the heretical claim that it is sufficient to keep the Ten Commandments alone and disregard the rest of the mitzvot (Berakhot 12a). For the same reason, some object to standing for the Ten Commandments. Nevertheless, most poskim are not concerned about this. After all, the people stood at Sinai. They feel that the Sages were concerned only that the daily recitation of the Ten Commandments might lead people astray. Additionally, nowadays it is unusual to find heretics who argue that the Ten Commandments are the only obligatory mitzvot.^[4]

12. Megillat Rut

It is customary to read the Book of Rut on Shavu’ot. According to the Midrash, this is “to teach you that the Torah is acquired only through poverty and suffering…. The Torah asked of God: ‘Master of the universe, throw my lot in with the poor, for if the wealthy study me, they will become arrogant, while poor people who study me are aware that they are lowly and hungry’” (Yalkut Shimoni, Rut, §596). In this megilla we see the fulfillment of the mishnaic proclamation: “Anyone who keeps the Torah while poor will eventually keep it while rich, while anyone who ignores the Torah while rich will ultimately ignore it while poor” (Pirkei Avot 4:9). Ruth lived long enough to see her descendants David and Shlomo sitting on the throne.

A second reason for reading this megilla on Shavu’ot is that Israel’s acceptance of the Torah at Sinai was in effect their conversion to Judaism. Rut’s conversion, as portrayed in the megilla, can be seen as a continuation of that event (Abudraham). A third reason is that it was on Shavu’ot that King David died. The Book of Rut deals with his lineage, as we read at its end: “And Yishai begot David” (Birkei Yosef 494:11). A fourth reason is that “This scroll contains neither laws about purity and impurity, nor laws about what is permitted and prohibited. Why then was it written? To teach how great the reward is for performing acts of kindness” (Rut Rabba 2:14). Encouraging kindness is the primary purpose of Torah, as we read: “The Torah begins with an act of kindness and ends with an act of kindness” (Sota 14a). This is also expressed by R. Akiva’s declaration: “‘Love your fellow as yourself’ is a vital principle of the Torah” (Sifra, Kedoshim).

As we saw above (2:10), some Ashkenazim read from a megilla written on parchment, reciting the berakhot of “al mikra megilla” and She-heḥeyanu beforehand. This is the custom of the Vilna Gaon’s followers. The custom of most Ashkenazim and all Sephardim is not to recite a berakha before reading. They also do not insist on reading from parchment.

In Ashkenazic countries, the custom was to read the megilla at Shaḥarit before the Torah reading on Yom Tov Sheni. However, if necessary it may be read at another time. Therefore, in Eretz Yisrael, some of those who stay up all night read the megilla before Shaḥarit, or after Minḥa so they will be able to concentrate on it better.

Sephardim and Yemenites generally read Megillat Rut before Minḥa. If they have already read it during their Shavu’ot night learning, it is not necessary to read it again before Minḥa.

13. Decorating the Synagogue

Many decorate the synagogue with pretty, fragrant branches and plants, in honor of the Torah that was given on Shavu’ot. Since Torah adds life, it is customary to decorate the synagogue with plants or branches, which symbolize life. This custom also reminds us that at the time of the giving of the Torah, Mount Sinai was covered by plants to honor the Torah (Levush). Some use fragrant branches in order to increase joy and pleasure, and to represent the exquisite spirituality of the Torah: “With every statement that issued forth from God’s mouth, the entire world filled with fragrance” (Shabbat 88b). Some use tree branches, because God passes judgment on fruit trees on Shavu’ot. By seeing branches in the synagogue, people will remember to pray for the trees (MA 494:5). However, branches from fruit trees should not be used, as they should not be broken off without a good reason.

This custom began in Germany around 600 years ago (Maharil; Rema 494:3). From there it spread to most Jewish communities, both Ashkenazic and Sephardic. The Vilna Gaon opposed the custom, because he felt it was similar to gentile practices. Christians decorated their homes with branches before their holiday (Pentecost), and the Torah commands us not to imitate their practices. Thus we read: “nor shall you follow their laws” (Vayikra 18:3). Some rule in accordance with the Vilna Gaon (Ḥayei Adam 131:13).

Nevertheless, most poskim maintain that there is no problem with the custom. The prohibition of following the gentiles applies only when either the custom is immodest in some way, or it is meaningless and pointless (and is done only to imitate non-Jewish practice, which can be assumed to be based on false beliefs). In contrast, in this case there are good reasons for the custom, and there is no concern that it looks like following non-Jewish ways. Accordingly, most Jewish communities do decorate the synagogue with pretty, fragrant branches and plants. Some decorate their homes as well with branches and flowers (Rema 494:3).^[5]

Since the branches are for decoration, they are not muktzeh. However, if Shavu’ot is on a Sunday, the branches should not be set out on Shabbat. Doing so would be preparing on Shabbat for Yom Tov, which is prohibited (MB 494:9).

14. Dairy Foods and Honey

The custom to eat dairy and honey on Shavu’ot is a custom that goes back over 600 years, to the time of the Rishonim. The custom originated in France and Germany, and spread from there to many Jewish communities. However, it is not universal. Many from Libya, Djerba, Bukhara, Iran, and Yemen do not follow it.

A number of reasons are given for this custom. Some say that it is because the Torah is compared to milk and honey (Devarim Rabba 7:3), as we read: “Honey and milk are under your tongue” (Shir Ha-shirim 4:11). According to another midrash, when the Jews stood at Sinai and said, “All the Lord has spoken we will faithfully do” (Shemot 24:7), God responded with the verse: “Honey and milk are under your tongue” (Tanḥuma Buber, Ki Tisa §9). The idea is that since the Jews agreed to accept the Torah unconditionally, they would find the Torah’s words as sweet as honey and milk. Accordingly, to remind us of the Torah’s sweetness and preciousness, there is a custom to eat dairy cakes that are tasty and sweet, as well as foods sweetened with honey (Orḥot Ḥayim; Pri Ḥadash).

Rav Kook presents a second explanation. Both milk and honey are foods which originate in something “impure” (not kosher). Honey is produced by bees, while milk is formed from blood. Because these foods involve the transformation of impure to pure and thus symbolize repairing the world, they have a special taste. Foods which symbolize transformation are appropriate to eat on the holiday celebrating the giving of the Torah, as the Torah has transformative power. It repairs what is wrong with the world, and “flavors” the evil inclination, transforming it into a positive force. Eretz Yisrael also possesses this power, which is why it is referred to as a land flowing with milk and honey.

A third suggested reason for the custom is that as a result of a Yom Tov menu including dairy foods, people have to prepare two challahs – one to be eaten with dairy and the second with meat. This hints at the offering of the shtei ha-leḥem on Shavu’ot (Rema 494:3). It has been further suggested that the custom imitates the behavior of our ancestors when the Torah was given. Right after they had received so many laws about preparing meat for consumption – including how to slaughter animals, how to check the slaughtering knife, how to salt the meat and more – they preferred to eat dairy. Dairy foods were easily prepared, requiring little work. To commemorate this, we too eat dairy on Shavu’ot (MB 494:12). However, since there is also a mitzva to be joyful on the festival, we eat meat then as well. We must be careful to separate between the two. By doing so, we demonstrate that we cherish the laws of the Torah.

Many have a custom to eat both milk and meat at the same meal. Some do this at the daytime meal, while many do it at night. They begin with dairy food. Afterward, they must brush their teeth or eat bread, an apple, or any other hard food, and then rinse out their mouths to wash away any milk residue. Then the tablecloth is changed, the table is reset, and meat is served. Obviously, the order cannot be switched, because if people begin with meat, they would need to wait six hours before having dairy.^[6]

Another variation practiced by many who stay up all night is to make kiddush after Shaḥarit in the morning, eat dairy cakes, and then go to sleep. After they wake up, they have a meat meal. Of utmost importance is the mitzva of simḥa; all these customs are meant to add joy to the holiday and honor to the Torah.

15. The Six Days Following Shavu’ot

When the Temple stood, there was a mitzva to make a pilgrimage three times a year, once on each festival, and to offer an ola and shelamim on the first day of the festival. These offerings were referred to as olat re’iya and shalmei ḥagiga. One who did not offer them on the first day could fulfill his obligation to do so up through the conclusion of the festival, meaning the seventh day of Pesaḥ or until Shemini Atzeret (Ḥagiga 9a). One who did not offer them on Shavu’ot could offer them in the following six days. Just as one had seven days to bring the ola and shelamim for Pesaḥ, so too one had a week to bring them for Shavu’ot (Ḥagiga 17a).

Since these festival sacrifices may be offered during the six days following Shavu’ot, an element of festival joy continues as well. Therefore, the custom is not to say Taḥanun during that time (MA; MB 131:37).

On the day after Shavu’ot, known as Isru Ḥag, fasting and eulogizing are prohibited. This is because it is “a day of slaughter,” meaning a day when sacrifices are sometimes brought. Specifically, when Shavu’ot was on Shabbat, the olat re’iya and shalmei ḥagiga would be postponed until Sunday, which was Isru Ḥag. Additionally, even when Shavu’ot was not on Shabbat, there were always many people who did not get a chance to offer all their sacrifices on the festival. What they did not manage to offer on Shavu’ot, they would offer the next day. A day on which sacrifices are offered is considered a day of simḥa. Therefore, one may not fast then (SA 494:3; Levush; MA ad loc. 3; SAH ad loc. 19; see above 2:13).

Glossary

01. The Names and Foundations of the Festival

There are three names for the festival which begins on the fifteenth of Tishrei:

Ḥag Ha-Sukkot, the Festival of Booths, after its primary mitzva;
The Festival of Ingathering (Ḥag Ha-asif), as it falls during the time of year when the gathering in of the harvested grain and fruit is finished;
The Festival (He-ḥag), as it is the festival par excellence. It is sometimes referred to this way without any further elaboration, as we read, “At that time Shlomo kept the Festival (He-ḥag) for seven days” (2 Divrei Ha-yamim 7:8). This is because it is the most joyous and festive of the festivals; it has the added joy of dancing at the Simḥat Beit Ha-sho’eva celebration (Tosefot Yom Tov to Rosh Ha-shana 1:2; below, section 10), and Israel would offer more sacrifices on Sukkot than on the other festivals (Ha’amek Davar to Devarim 16:13). The special joy of Sukkot will be explained below (section 8).

There are three fundamental and interrelated elements of the festival of Sukkot:

The intrinsic holiness of the days (including Shemini Atzeret), which conclude the annual cycle of festivals, and during which we rejoice and give thanks to God for the year’s crops. This sanctity is expressed in the mitzva to refrain from melekhet avoda (occupational work; see Peninei Halakha: Mo’adim 11:1) on the first and eighth days, which are holidays, and in the partial abstention on the intermediate days of Ḥol Ha-mo’ed. The sanctity of these days is also expressed in the extra sacrifices that we are commanded to offer on this festival, as described in Bamidbar (29:12-34).
The mitzva of the arba’at ha-minim (four species), which adds to the joy of gathering in the year’s produce and of the repentance and atonement achieved during the Days of Awe.
The mitzva of sukka, which gives the festival its name, so that every generation knows that God redeemed Israel from Egypt and watches over His people. The sukka also alludes to a time in the future, when God will spread His sukka of peace over us, over all of Israel, and over the entire world.

These three elements are introduced in the section of the Torah that deals with the holidays (Vayikra 23:33-44). In contrast to other festivals, which are each described as a single unit, Sukkot is described in three stages. First:

The Lord spoke to Moshe saying: Say to the Israelites: On the fifteenth day of this seventh month there shall be the Lord’s seven-day festival of Sukkot. The first day shall be a sacred occasion: you shall not work at your occupations; seven days you shall bring offerings by fire to the Lord. On the eighth day you shall observe a sacred occasion and bring an offering by fire to the Lord; it is a solemn gathering; you shall not work at your occupations. (33-38)

Second:

Mark, on the fifteenth day of the seventh month, when you have gathered in the yield of your land, you shall observe the seven-day festival of the Lord; a complete rest on the first day, and a complete rest on the eighth day. On the first day you shall take the fruit of a hadar tree, branches of palm trees, boughs of dense-leaved trees, and willows of the brook, and you shall rejoice before the Lord your God seven days. (39-40)

Third:

You shall observe it as a festival of the Lord for seven days in the year; you shall observe it in the seventh month as a law for all time, throughout the ages. You shall dwell in sukkot seven days; all citizens in Israel shall dwell in sukkot, in order that future generations may know that I made the Israelites dwell in sukkot when I brought them out of the land of Egypt, I the Lord your God. (Ibid. 41-43)

02. The Festival of Ingathering

Sukkot is also called the Festival of Ingathering – “the Festival of Ingathering at the turn of the year” (Shemot 34:22) – because it occurs when the grain and other crops are gathered in from the fields and brought into homes and storehouses. Thus, the verse states: “Hold a seven-day festival of Sukkot when you gather in from your threshing floor and your winery” (Devarim 16:13, and similarly Vayikra 23:39).

The three pilgrimage festivals are connected to the agricultural seasons during which they occur, as the Torah states:

Three times a year you shall hold a festival for Me: the Festival of Unleavened Bread…at the ordained time of the month of Aviv…. The Festival of the Harvest of the first fruits of your work, of what you sow in the field; and the Festival of Ingathering at the end of the year, when you gather your handiwork in from the field. (Shemot 23:14-16)

Pesaḥ is in aviv (spring), when everything is beginning to bloom; Shavu’ot is at the end of the grain harvest and the beginning of the fruit harvest; and Sukkot is at the completion of the ingathering of the year’s yield. The mitzva of each festival is to rejoice and thank God for the bounty with which He has blessed us. Sukkot, when we finish gathering in the produce of the whole year, is therefore the most joyful of all (Peninei Halakha: Mo’adim 1:2; 13:4-5).

These natural processes of this world reflect the spiritual processes that occur in the supernal worlds. Pesaḥ is a time of beginning and renewal, so we left Egypt then and became a nation. Shavu’ot is a time when the growth process reaches maturity, so we received the Torah then. Sukkot is when we finish gathering the grain and fruit into the house, so spiritually, it is a time to collect the spiritual fruits that Israel gained during the Egyptian bondage and the wanderings in the desert – and bring them into the home, that is, into Eretz Yisrael, Israel’s home. As Abarbanel wrote (Devarim 16:13), the primary joy of Sukkot is inheriting the land of Israel. Thus, Pesaḥ celebrates the uniqueness of Israel revealed at the time of the Exodus; Shavu’ot celebrates the giving of the Torah; and Sukkot celebrates inheriting Eretz Yisrael.

Two cycles culminate with Sukkot. The longer cycle is that of the three pilgrimage festivals, which correspond to the agricultural cycles and seasons, and which will begin anew with the winter planting. The second cycle is the repentance and atonement that we experience during the months of Elul and Tishrei. We do many wonderful things in the course of the year, but by our very nature, we are also prone to sin. In order to complete the year on the most positive note possible, we must repent, cleanse, and purify ourselves from any evil still clinging to us. This is our spiritual undertaking during Elul, Rosh Ha-shana, the Ten Days of Repentance, and Yom Kippur. By virtue of this repentance, atonement, and purification, the good we have absorbed during the course of the year is further refined, cleansed of the evil that has clung to it. This enables us to multiply our joy on Sukkot.

Rav Kook explains that although repentance is tremendously important, as it cleanses hearts and purifies disgraceful actions, it is also accompanied by pain, which causes the dulling of good will and saps vitality. Therefore, the season of repentance culminates with the joy of Sukkot, which restores our will to do good and our bold vitality (Orot Ha-teshuva 9:10).

03. The Four Species

The mitzva of the four species is connected to the joy of Sukkot, as we read, “On the first day you shall take the fruit of a hadar tree, branches of palm trees, boughs of dense-leaved trees, and willows of the brook, and you shall rejoice before the Lord your God seven days” (Vayikra 23:40). The Sages explain that the joy in taking the lulav (which represents all four species) is related to both aspects of the Ingathering Festival – the material and the spiritual.

The material milestone celebrated is the end of the ingathering of all the year’s produce, when people experience abundant joy. To sanctify and connect this joy to recognizing the One Who created and sustains the world, we are commanded to take the four species as a symbol of our gratitude to God (Ramban on Vayikra 23:39; Sefer Ha-ḥinukh §324). The Sages ordained the shaking or waving of the four species upward, downward, and in all four directions, to express our faith in the Lord of the heavens, the earth, and everything in all four directions. It also conveys an implicit prayer for the upcoming year: May our crops flourish, and may God save us from harmful weather (Sukka 37b; below, 5:4).

The spiritual aspect of the celebration relates to our completion of the process of repentance for the past year’s sins. Waving the lulav is waving a banner to signify victory, for the success of our repentance and our drawing closer to God. The Sages compare this to two litigants who presented their cases in court. At the conclusion of the trial, no one knew who had won. Only after one of the litigants waved his sword did everyone know that he had won. Similarly, each year during the Days of Awe, the wicked of the world accuse Israel, claiming that they have not been fulfilling their mission, do not deserve to represent God in this world, and are not even worthy of preserving. The deliberations are tense, and no one knows whose claims prevailed – until Israel emerges holding their lulavim and etrogim, signifying that they prevailed, that they are God’s children and people. The nations of the world even celebrate with them, which is why we offered sacrifices on their behalf on Sukkot. This is why we were commanded, “On the first day you shall take” (based on Vayikra Rabba 30:2; Zohar I 221a).

The Sages also said that the four species tied together allude to the four types of Jews who must unite in serving God. Their unification sanctifies God’s name in the world (as elaborated in 4:2-3 below) and also leads to great joy. Thus, by taking the four species, we can rejoice before God for seven days.

04. The Sukka as Commemoration of the Booths in the Wilderness and the Clouds of Glory

The Torah explains the mitzva to dwell in the sukka for seven days: “In order that future generations may know that I made the Israelites dwell in sukkot when I brought them out of the land of Egypt, I the Lord your God” (Vayikra 23:43). There is a disagreement in the Mishna as to what is meant by “sukkot.” According to R. Eliezer, they refer to the clouds of glory (“ananei ha-kavod”) that sheltered Israel in the wilderness; according to R. Akiva, they refer to the actual booths in which the Israelites dwelt when they left Egypt (Sukka 11b). Both positions can be supported by the verses:

Now when Pharaoh let the people go…they set out from Sukkot [i.e., they had built sukkot] and encamped at Etam, at the edge of the wilderness. The Lord went before them in a pillar of cloud by day, to guide them along the way, and in a pillar of fire by night, to give them light, that they might travel day and night. The pillar of cloud by day and the pillar of fire by night did not depart from before the people [i.e., they were protected by the clouds of glory]. (Shemot 13:17, 20-22)

In the opinion of R. Akiva, the mitzva of sukka commemorates the booths that Israel built to shelter themselves from sun and rain, reminding us of our humble beginnings, when God took us out of Egypt and led us from slavery to freedom, and when we wandered in the wilderness for forty years, sheltering in temporary booths to protect us from the sun and rain, without houses or inherited estates. By commemorating this, we will thank God for bringing us to the good and spacious land, a land where we could build homes and plant trees. Remembering our humble accommodations in booths helps ensure that the bounty of the good land will not cause us to become arrogant and forget God. Rather, we will recall that all is in His hands; He gave us the strength to conquer and settle the land, to eat its fruits and be satisfied by its bounty (Rashbam, Vayikra 23:43). This commemoration also redounds to the credit of Israel, who followed God into the uncultivated wilderness (Rabbeinu Baḥya ad loc.).

In the opinion of R. Eliezer, the mitzva of sukka commemorates the great miracle that God performed for Israel by providing clouds of glory to protect and guide them in the wilderness, as we read, “The Lord’s cloud kept above them by day, as they moved on from the camp” (Bamidbar 10:34). The clouds of glory expressed God’s love for us. Not only did He provide us with all our needs in the wilderness for forty years, with manna, quail, and the well, but His Shekhina also dwelt in our midst, and He covered us with clouds of glory, sheltering and protecting us (Ramban, Vayikra 23:43). The Sages state, “There were seven clouds of glory with Israel…one in each of the four directions, one above, one below, and one in front, clearing the way for them” (Mekhilta De-Rashbi, Shemot 13:21; Sifrei, Be-ha’alotekha 83). They further state that due to the merit accrued by Israel in following God into the wilderness, He enveloped them in clouds of glory (Zohar III 103b).

A cloud both reveals and conceals. On one hand, it is an expression of the Shekhina, but at the same time it conceals the intense divine illumination so that we can absorb it gradually. This is how God reveals Himself to us. First, He radiates a powerful illumination upon us, but since it is too powerful for us to comprehend, He masks it, so the light reaches us in accordance with our ability to absorb it. It is like the sun, which provides the world with energy, but since we cannot withstand its intensity, God created the atmosphere to protect us from its rays. This idea is alluded to in the verse (Tehilim 84:12), “For the Lord God is sun and shield.” (See Tanya, Sha’ar Ha-yiḥud Ve-ha’emuna, ch. 4.)

The sukka’s sekhakh also alludes to this. Physically, it protects us from most of the sun’s light, but it is not completely impenetrable, so that we can enjoy the light. Spiritually as well, the sekhakh protects us from most of the “enveloping light” (or makif) revealed on Sukkot, allowing us to absorb it according to our abilities (below, section 7).

05. The Reason for the Mitzva of Sukka – Practical Ramifications

In addition to the reasons for sukka given above – commemorating the booths in the wilderness according to R. Akiva, and the clouds of glory according to R. Eliezer – residing in a sukka also reminds us of the Exodus from Egypt, as the verse states: “In order that future generations may know that I made the Israelites dwell in sukkot when I brought them out of the land of Egypt” (Vayikra 23:43). Not only Sukkot, but every Shabbat and holiday commemorates the Exodus from Egypt, as we acknowledge in kiddush and in our prayers. The Exodus is so important because the uniqueness of Israel, whom God chose as His treasured people and took out of Egypt, from bondage to freedom, was revealed through it. On a deeper level, He liberated our spirits from enslavement to materialism, for Egypt was a materialistic civilization. When we went free from Egypt, our spirits were freed from enslavement to the material, and we were free to accept the Torah (see Peninei Halakha: Pesaḥ 1:3).

It would seem that, if the sukka commemorates the Exodus, it should be built in the spring, the season when the Exodus took place. However, were we to build a sukka then, it would not be clear that it was to fulfill a mitzva, as during the spring there are people who sleep in booths or tents because they enjoy it. Therefore, we are commanded to reside in the sukka in the fall, to make it clear that we are doing so in order to fulfill a mitzva (Tur, OḤ 625).

Let us return to the debate between R. Eliezer and R. Akiva. The halakha follows R. Eliezer, which means that when we fulfill the mitzva, we must remember that the sukka is to commemorate the clouds of glory (SA 625:1). The Aḥaronim add that we must also keep in mind that the sukka is to commemorate the Exodus (MA; SAH; Pri Megadim; MB ad loc. 1). Some suggest that this is actually what R. Akiva meant – that we must remember the booths that Israel made when they left Egypt (Rabbeinu Ḥananel; Taz). Thus, if we recall both the clouds of glory and the Exodus, in practice we are following both opinions.

Although the reason for this mitzva is explicit in the Torah, as it states, “In order that future generations may know that I made the Israelites dwell in sukkot when I brought them out of the land of Egypt” (Vayikra 23:43), nevertheless, if one forgot to have in mind that the sukka commemorates the clouds of glory and the Exodus, he has fulfilled his obligation, as long as he intended to fulfill God’s commandment (Pri Megadim; MB 625:1; below, 3:3, we explain that this law pertains to the first night as well).

06. A Temporary Residence

God wanted to bestow good upon us, so He chose us from among all the nations, brought us out of slavery, and gave us the Holy Land – a good and spacious land, a land flowing with milk and honey. So that we uphold the Torah and mitzvot in this land, we plant trees and build homes in it, eat of its fruit, and are satisfied by its bounty. In the land, we live our entire lives in holiness, thus fully revealing the divine, through body and soul, in all areas of life.

However, a great danger lurks as well, waiting to ambush us: as we reside in sturdy homes and enjoy abundant harvests, we are prone to becoming arrogant and forgetting the Lord our God and our mission in this world (which, after all, is the reason God took us out of Egypt). Sins could multiply to such an extent that we would lose the good land and be exiled. We would be forced to live among the nations, growing their fruits, and enriching them. Indeed, the Torah warns us about this danger:

Take care lest you forget the Lord your God and fail to keep His commandments, His rules, and His laws, which I enjoin upon you today. When you have eaten your fill, and have built fine houses to live in, and your herds and flocks have multiplied, and your silver and gold have increased, and everything you own has prospered, beware lest your heart grow haughty and you forget the Lord your God – Who freed you from the land of Egypt, the house of bondage; Who led you through the great and terrible wilderness with its seraph serpents and scorpions, a parched land with no water in it, Who brought forth water for you from the flinty rock; Who fed you in the wilderness with manna which your fathers had never known, in order to test you by hardships only to benefit you in the end – and you say to yourselves, “My own power and the might of my own hand have won this wealth for me.” Remember that it is the Lord your God Who gives you the power to get wealth, in fulfillment of the covenant that He made on oath with your fathers, as is still the case. If you do forget the Lord your God and follow other gods to serve them or bow down to them, I warn you this day that you shall certainly perish…. (Devarim 8:11-19)

This is why we are commanded specifically during the festival of ingathering, when we celebrate all the produce that grew in our fields, to dwell in a sukka, a temporary residence. We are thus reminded of the fleeting nature of human life, of being slaves to Pharaoh in Egypt, and of the forty years we wandered in the wilderness and resided in makeshift booths (based on Rashbam to Vayikra 23:43).

Let us elaborate further. Comfortably living at home is likely to mislead a person to believe that the walls of his home can protect him from all trials and tribulations. However, in truth, one’s life in this world is temporary, and even the strongest and best homes cannot protect one from disease, natural disaster, and war. And even if someone survives all these and lives to a ripe old age, eventually his time runs out; it becomes clear that his stay in this world was temporary. And even during all the years when he was privileged to reside tranquilly in his secure home, the tranquility and protection were from God. One who does not live with this awareness is living a lie; he thinks that the more he invests in the frivolities of this world, the more stable and the better his life will be. The truth is that the more he connects his activities in this world to the Source of life and to eternal values, the more meaningful, good, and truly happy his life will be. (See section 9, below, about Kohelet.)

Leaving our secure homes and entering the sukka on Sukkot allows us to absorb all these foundational lessons. It is for this reason that the sukka is referred to as “the shade of faith” (tzila di-mehemnuta). The timing of Sukkot is precise. Just before the winter arrives, and just as we are about to return to our homes for protection from the cold, wind, and rain, we are commanded to sit in the sukka and remember that God is our true guard and protector. “Unless the Lord builds the house, its builders labor in vain on it; unless the Lord watches over the city, the watchman keeps vigil in vain” (Tehilim 127:1).

In the merit of our living in temporary residences which connect us to faith, God will allow His Shekhina to dwell in our midst. He will spread His canopy of peace over us and rebuild for all time the fallen sukka of David (the Davidic dynasty) and the Temple. We will live securely in permanent homes in the good land that God promised to our ancestors and to us, as we read:

On that day, I will set up again the fallen booth of David, I will mend its breaches and set up its ruins anew. I will build it firm as in the days of old…when the mountains shall drip wine and all the hills shall wave [with grain]. I will restore My people Israel. They shall rebuild ruined cities and inhabit them; they shall plant vineyards and drink their wine; they shall till gardens and eat their fruits. And I will plant them upon their soil, nevermore to be uprooted from the soil I have given them – said the Lord your God. (Amos 9:11-15)

07. The Sukka – an Enveloping Light

The mitzva to dwell in a sukka is special in that it sanctifies routine life. When one eats and drinks, converses and sleeps in a sukka, it exalts and sanctifies these mundane acts, turning them into a mitzva. The kabbalists allude to this when they explain that the light of the sukka is an “enveloping” or “surrounding” light (“or makif”), as contrasted with the light of most mitzvot (including the four species), which is an “inner light.” Let us explain further:

The light that radiates from God is above and beyond our capacity to absorb and contain. We can thus speak of two parts: inner light (“or penimi”) and enveloping light. Inner light is the less powerful part, which we can absorb through thought and emotion. The more powerful part, which is beyond our ability to absorb, becomes a light that envelops us; although we cannot contain it, it surrounds us and gives us inspiration that deeply affects our lives.

The inner light allows us to exalt and sanctify the more obviously spiritual aspects of our lives. It is revealed by means of Torah study, prayer, and primarily mitzvot between one and God, which connect people to that which is beyond the mundane; their sanctity is more apparent. From the perspective of the inner light, the more spiritual something is, the higher a level it is on, and in contrast, the more practical and routine something is, the lower a level it is on. The four species allude to this, as we take them solely to fulfill a mitzva (below, 4:2-3).

Through the much greater or makif, on the other hand, we can repair and elevate the material and routine parts of life as well. This great light is revealed when faith and Torah illuminate mundane life: eating, drinking, sleeping, family life, interpersonal relationships, work, commerce, and scientific research. This is the primary mission of the Jewish people: to reveal to the world that God is one, in heaven and on earth, and that even mundane matters are connected to holiness. The mitzva of sukka alludes to this, as everything we do inside the sukka is sanctified and transformed into a mitzva, thus revealing a profound secret of faith (Zohar II 186b).

In this way, the mitzva of sukka is similar to the mitzva of settling Eretz Yisrael. Both of these mitzvot envelop us. When we enter into their holy atmosphere, our mundane activities are sanctified. The Vilna Gaon (Kol Ha-tor 1:7) says that there is an allusion to this connection in the verse, “Salem became His abode (sukko); Zion, His den” (Tehilim 76:3). Similarly, as we said above (section 2), the primary joy of Sukkot is celebrating our inheriting the land (Abarbanel to Devarim 16:13). These two mitzvot in particular reveal the special qualities of Israel, for the unique aspect of Israel is revealing sanctity on earth (see Avoda Zara 3b).

These two mitzvot complement one another. The sukka commemorates the clouds of glory, through which the Shekhina was revealed in the wilderness, as we read, “They turned toward the wilderness, and there, in a cloud, appeared the glory of the Lord” (Shemot 16:10). Similarly, we read that at Mount Sinai there was “a dense cloud upon the mountain” (ibid. 19:16), and that when God revealed Himself to Moshe, “The Lord came down in a cloud; He stood with him there” (ibid. 34:5). The reason the Shekhina revealed itself in the wilderness in the thick of the cloud is because we had not yet merited entering the Holy Land, where everything is linked to holiness. After we entered the land, our job became revealing the Shekhina in the land, such that everything we do is infused with the Divine Presence. However, there is a risk that when we busy ourselves with the practicalities of daily life in Eretz Yisrael, we will forget to focus on the holy. God gave us Sukkot as a constant reminder of the clouds of glory, the presence of the Shekhina, and the sacred mission of the Jewish people to reveal holiness within the world of action.

Revealing the holiness of Sukkot and Eretz Yisrael will bring the world to its complete perfection, as it is written: “In all of My sacred mount nothing evil or vile shall be done; for the land shall be filled with devotion to the Lord as water covers the sea” (Yeshayahu 11:9). This will also lead to world peace, as we read, “The wolf shall dwell with the lamb, the leopard lie down with the kid” (ibid. 11:6). A similar sentiment is expressed in the chapter of Zechariah dealing with redemption and Sukkot: “And the Lord shall be king over all the earth; in that day there shall be one Lord with one name” (Zechariah 14:9). The nations of the world will ascend to Jerusalem and celebrate Sukkot with us. Even items which seem distant from holiness, like the bells of horses, will be designated “holy to God” (ibid. 14:20).

08. The Joy of Sukkot – Unity and Peace

There is a mitzva to rejoice on all the festivals, as the Torah says, “You shall rejoice in your festival” (Devarim 16:14). On Sukkot, though, we are to be extra joyful. Therefore, the mitzva to rejoice on all the festivals was stated in context of Sukkot:

After the ingathering from your threshing floor and your vat, you shall hold the seven-day festival of Sukkot. You shall rejoice in your festival, with your son and daughter, your male and female slave, the Levite, the stranger, the fatherless, and the widow in your communities. For seven days you shall hold a festival for the Lord your God, in the place that the Lord will choose; for the Lord your God will bless all your crops and all your undertakings, and you shall have nothing but joy. (Devarim 16:13-15)

Similarly we read, “Mark, on the fifteenth day of the seventh month, when you have gathered in the yield of your land, you shall observe the seven-day festival of the Lord…and you shall rejoice before the Lord your God seven days” (Vayikra 23:39-40).

Joy is not explicitly mentioned in context of Pesaḥ. The Sages explain that this is because Pesaḥ is the time of judgment for the grain for the upcoming year. Additionally, since many Egyptians died then, our joy is incomplete. In reference to the festival of Shavu’ot, joy is mentioned once: “Then you shall observe the Festival of Weeks…and you shall rejoice before the Lord your God” (Devarim 16:10-11). By this point of the year, we already know that the grain has grown, and we are happy about it, but we are still worried about the rest of the produce. The word “joy” is not used in reference to Rosh Ha-shana, because it is a time of judgment for the entire world. But on Sukkot, after all the grain and fruits have been gathered in, and after we have repented and been atoned, we can truly and completely rejoice. This is why the verses speaking of Sukkot mention rejoicing three times (Pesikta De-Rav Kahana, Sukkot; Beit Yosef, OḤ 490:4; MB ad loc. 7).

The extra joy of Sukkot, then, is an end-of-year celebration, marking the ingathering of all the year’s produce – a material and spiritual ingathering of grain and fruits as well as of everything we learned and all the good things we did during the year. This ingathering is especially pure since it follows the season of repentance and atonement (as explained in section 2 above). The mitzva of taking the lulav also expresses the joy of the material and spiritual ingathering (section 3 above). Thus, we are elevated toward the Source of Life in ecstasy, and we gather to celebrate before the Lord our God. The sukka, surrounding us on all sides, symbolizes the ingathering of all the good things we did during the year. They all come together perfectly and envelop us, bathing us in divine light.

When we gather together every aspect and degree of goodness, even those which seem at first glance to be incompatible with one another, God spreads His canopy of peace over us, and Israel becomes cohesive and unified. For as long as each element stands on its own, there is no unity. But on the ingathering festival, all elements come together, revealing their unity. This is the meaning of the Sages’ statement: “All Jews can sit in one sukka” (Sukka 27b). Similarly, the four species hint at the different types of Jews who come together on Sukkot (below, 4:2-3).

Through the relative perfection that we attain on Sukkot in this world, we will reach the greater perfection in the messianic future, as the Sages said: “Of one who fulfills the mitzva of sukka in this world, the Holy One says, ‘He fulfilled the mitzva of sukka in this world; I will shelter him from the intense heat of the days to come’” (Pesikta De-Rav Kahana, Sukkot). This echoes a statement from the Gemara:

There will be no Gehinnom in the future. Rather, God will remove the sun from its sheath and intensify its heat. The wicked will be brought to justice by it, and the righteous will be healed by it. The wicked will be brought to justice by it, as it is written: “For lo! That day is at hand, burning like an oven. All the arrogant and all the doers of evil shall be straw, and the day that is coming – said the Lord of Hosts – shall burn them to ashes…” (Malakhi 3:19-20). The righteous will be healed by it, as it is written: “But for you who revere My name, a sun of victory shall rise to bring healing” (ibid.). Moreover, they will delight in it, as it is written: “You shall go forth and stamp like stall-fed calves” (ibid.). (Avoda Zara 3b)

The Sages tell us that the mitzvot which we perform in this world become garments that will allow us to absorb the great light in the future (Zohar II 210a). The sukka expresses this in our world, as it is the mitzva and shield that allows us to absorb the great light in a manner that is appropriate for us. (See the end of section 4.)

09. The Book of Kohelet

Many communities read the Book of Kohelet on Sukkot (Sofrim 14:1), as it teaches us how to celebrate truly. This is very important for people to learn, as we are naturally predisposed to find happiness in the trivialities and vanities of this world, thinking that the richer we are, the larger our homes, the fancier our clothes, the finer our food, the more expensive our drinks, the more exotic our gardens, and the more numerous our staff of servants, the happier we will be. In truth, all these things are merely instrumental; they can help us toward the ultimate objective, which is our spiritual stature, faith, and good character. But when material possessions become primary, it makes us forget our inner wellbeing and values, detaches us from the Source of Life, and leaves us hollowed out, empty, and joyless.

The idea of Sukkot is to experience true joy with all the produce that we gathered throughout the year. We achieve this by reinforcing our awareness that everything that we gathered was due to God’s kindness, and that its main purpose is to help us grow stronger in our faith and moral fiber and to give us the means and desire to help others and repair the world. We leave our secure, permanent homes for the temporary sukka, a place of mitzva and sanctity, and thus return to the foundations of the Jewish faith. We learn that our homes and possessions are tools to realize divine ideals.

This idea is expressed in Kohelet, which clarifies for us that wisdom, wealth, beauty, and other worldly virtues are trivial, “hevel.” Only one thing is important: “The sum of the matter, when all is said and done: Revere God and observe His mitzvot, for this is the entirety of humanity” (Kohelet 12:13). I heard a nice explanation of this from my uncle. “Hevel” means “nothing” or “zero,” while reverence of God is “one” – it is the first among virtues like one is the first number (Shabbat 31b). If reverence of God comes first and it is joined by wisdom, the 1 joined to the 0 makes 10. If wealth, which is also a 0, is added, we reach 100. If beauty, which is also a 0, is added, we reach 1000. And so on. However, if reverence for God does not lead off, then all the other virtues are meaningless, a big fat zero (R. Avraham Remer zt”l).

Kohelet teaches us that joy which is not connected to a mitzva or moral value is unworthy. About this, it is written, “Of merriment [I said], ‘What good is that?’” (Kohelet 2:2). But about the joy of a mitzva, it is written, “I therefore praised enjoyment. For the only good a man can have under the sun is to eat and drink and enjoy himself” (ibid. 8:15). The Sages expound: “The Shekhina does not dwell with someone who is feeling sad, lazy, frivolous, or silly, or who is speaking nonsense. Rather, it dwells with one who is feeling happy on account of a mitzva” (Shabbat 30b).

Some Ashkenazic communities follow the practice of reading Kohelet from a parchment and reciting the berakhot of “al mikra megilla” and She-heḥeyanu beforehand. This is the practice of the students of the Vilna Gaon. Most Ashkenazic communities, however, do not recite berakhot before reading Kohelet, nor are they meticulous about reading it from a parchment (Rema 490:9; MB 490:19; Peninei Halakha: Mo’adim 2:10).

Ashkenazic custom is to read the megilla at Shaḥarit of Shabbat Ḥol Ha-mo’ed, before the Torah reading. Most Sephardic communities do not read Kohelet on Sukkot. Yemenites read part of Kohelet before Minḥa on Shabbat Ḥol Ha-mo’ed, and the rest on the last day of Yom Tov. (See Peninei Halakha: Mo’adim 2:10.)

10. Simḥat Beit Ha-sho’eva

When the Temple stood, a huge celebration, complete with music and dancing, was held in the Temple courtyard every night of Ḥol Ha-mo’ed Sukkot. This celebration was known as Simḥat Beit Ha-sho’eva. The Sages report: “Anyone who never witnessed the Simḥat Beit ha-sho’eva has never in his life witnessed simḥa” (m. Sukka 5:1). The celebration began after the afternoon tamid offering and continued all night long. As dawn approached, an official would make a declaration, and two kohanim standing at the upper gate would blow teki’a-teru’a-teki’a blasts on trumpets. They would lead everyone in a procession descending from the upper gate of the Temple. When the kohanim reached the tenth step, they blew teki’a-teru’a-teki’a blasts again. When they reached the women’s courtyard, they blew yet again. They continued blowing the trumpets until they arrived at the gate which exited the courtyard to the east. From there, the procession continued down to the Shilo’aḥ spring. There they drew water to be used for the libation that would accompany the morning tamid offering (Sukka 51b). When they ascended back to the Temple, they entered via the Water Gate, and the kohanim blew the trumpets once again. All of these blasts were celebratory, as we read (Yeshayahu 12:3), “Joyfully shall you draw water from the fountains of salvation” (Sukka 48a-b). The entire event was called the Simḥat Beit Ha-sho’eva (lit. “the Celebration of the Water-Drawing Place”) on account of this water-drawing procession. The Sages further report that the joy of this mitzva imbued Israel’s leaders with divine inspiration. This was an additional reason for the name – “for they ‘drew’ divine inspiration from there” (y. Sukka 5:1).

This joy rested on two foundations: the joy that typifies Sukkot, and the special mitzva of the water libation that took place only on Sukkot. During the year, all offerings, both individual and communal, were accompanied by a wine libation, which was poured on the altar. Only on Sukkot, at the morning tamid, was there a special mitzva of pouring water, in addition to wine, on the altar. They would fill two receptacles – one with wine and the other with the water brought from the Shilo’aḥ – and pour them out simultaneously into the Shitin, a natural hollow space under the Temple floor, through two adjacent holes in the surface of the altar. During the construction of the Temple, they built the altar above the Shitin and left a narrow opening between the altar and its ramp, so that the water libations could be poured into the Shitin (Sukka 49a). The Shitin was in place from the moment of creation, designated for use in this mitzva, to ensure that the water libations reach the very foundations of the earth; all other wine libations could simply be poured onto the altar (Maharsha, Sukka 3b).

The water libations express the uniqueness of Sukkot, in which the sanctity of natural life and existence is revealed – just as the mitzva of sukka transforms natural activities like sleeping and eating into mitzvot. All year long, only wine libations accompanied the offerings, because normally, only the special elevation to which wine alludes can reveal sanctity. But on Sukkot, after the observance of all the festivals and days of repentance, and after the gathering in all the year’s produce, sanctity is manifest in routine life as well, which is sustained by water. This is the greatest, most complete joy, as it incorporates all facets of life.

The Sages tell us that on Sukkot we are judged concerning water and that through the water libations, the incoming year’s rainfall is blessed (RH 16a). We must note that water alludes to God’s great kindness, which sustains everything, without exception: grass and trees, fruits and vegetables, fish and fowl, wild and domesticated animals, Israel and the nations of the world. Usually we are not worthy of ascending to the level of this great kindness, but on Sukkot, after we have completed the entire cycle of festivals and repentance, we become worthy of pouring water on the altar, thus connecting with the very foundations of the world’s existence and thereby opening the gates of blessing to all creatures. The joy that accompanies the drawing of the water is therefore very great indeed.

11. The Proceedings of the Simḥat Beit Ha-sho’eva

Large golden candelabra, atop poles fifty amot high, were erected in the Temple courtyard. Each candelabrum had four lamps, and four young kohanim were charged with lighting each candelabrum by climbing ladders to fill the lamps with enough oil to last all night and to kindle them. The wicks for the lamps were made from worn-out pants of kohanim. These lamps produced enough light to illuminate all the courtyards in Jerusalem (m. Sukka 5:3).

The celebration itself took place in the women’s courtyard, which was the outer courtyard of the Temple. Musicians stood on the fifteen steps that descended from the men’s courtyard to the women’s and played a variety of instruments: flutes, harps, trumpets, and cymbals (m. Sukka 5:4). Most of the musicians were Levites, but Israelites who knew how to play would join the orchestra.

The pious and virtuous would dance while juggling torches. Some could juggle four torches, and some could manage eight. They did not worry about their dignity. Rather, they danced, skipped, and jumped at the Simḥat Beit Ha-sho’eva, like King David, who danced and whirled with all his might before the Ark of God (2 Samuel 6:16). The Sages recount that when R. Shimon ben Gamliel (the Nasi) rejoiced at the Simḥat Beit Ha-sho’eva, he took eight torches in golden holders. He threw one and grabbed another, and they never collided with each other. He also bowed down, planting his thumbs in the earth and kissing the floor of the courtyard, then immediately straightening up. Those present sang songs and praises to God. The pious and virtuous would say, “Fortunate is our youth, which does not embarrass our old age,” while penitents would say, “Fortunate is our old age, which atones for our youth.” Both would say, “Fortunate is one who did not sin, and one who sinned can repent and be forgiven.” The joy of the sages led them to experience divine inspiration. It is said of the prophet Yona that he was inspired by the divine spirit and achieved prophecy as a result of his rejoicing at the Simḥat Beit Ha-sho’eva (Sukka 53a; y. Sukka 5:1, 4).

Not everyone who wanted was allowed to dance in the presence of the people. Rather, the greatest sages, yeshiva heads, the members of the Sanhedrin, the pious, the elders, and the virtuous danced and rejoiced in front of the people. Everyone else, men and women, came to watch them dance and hear the marvelous singing (MT, Laws of Shofar, Sukka, and Lulav 8:14). Presumably they could sing and dance in place a little bit.

Originally, the women would stand in the women’s courtyard, and the men stood further away, on the open area of the Temple Mount. When the Sages saw that this led to frivolity and mixing, they instructed that a balcony be built for the women to stand on, with the men standing below them. The dancing then took place in the middle of the courtyard (Sukka 51b).

Yehoshua ben Ḥananya was a Levite who was among those who sang while the sacrifices were being offered. He testified that during all of Ḥol Ha-mo’ed, the Levites did not sleep in their beds. They sang in the morning, while the morning tamid was offered, then they prayed Shaḥarit, then sang again during the musaf offering, and then prayed the Musaf prayer. From there they went to the beit midrash to study Torah until after noon, whereupon they ate a festive meal, prayed Minḥa, and sang in accompaniment of the afternoon tamid. Right after that, the Simḥat Beit Ha-sho’eva began and continued until dawn. When they grew tired, they would nod off a bit while resting their heads on their colleagues’ shoulders (Sukka 53a).

12. The Simḥat Beit Ha-sho’eva Nowadays

It is customary to hold celebrations on Ḥol Ha-mo’ed, in commemoration of the Simḥat Beit Ha-sho’eva held in the Temple. Every celebration held during the festival is a mitzva, as we read, “You shall rejoice in your festival” (Devarim 16:14). These commemorative celebrations, also called “Simḥat Beit Ha-sho’eva,” fulfill an additional mitzva by invoking the Temple celebrations and thus hasten the Temple’s rebuilding (Sukka 41a).

This custom has become stronger in recent centuries, as Jews from all over the world began to gather in Eretz Yisrael, and the light of salvation began to glimmer. Originally, these celebrations were held only in Eretz Yisrael, but they spread to the Diaspora as well. As R. Ḥayim ibn Attar (the “Or Ha-Ḥayim”) wrote in a letter from Jerusalem in 5503 (1742): “On Ḥol Ha-mo’ed we had a Simḥat Beit Ha-sho’eva. I was the one who lit [the torches] one night, and we held a great celebration.” Elsewhere it is recounted that people would dance in circles, holding torches. Similarly, Ḥasidim who immigrated to Israel from Europe reported that a Simḥat Beit Ha-sho’eva with drums, dancing, and torches was held in Tzefat.

Yehosef Schwartz (d. 5625/1864) wrote a letter to his brother about the special celebrations that took place in Jerusalem. He described how in the Kahal Tziyon Synagogue they set up a special device that shot water upward during the celebration. R. Yehuda Leibish Orenstein (head of the Ḥasidei Yerushalayim rabbinical court) wrote (in 5633/1872) that the Sadigora Ḥasidim who immigrated to Jerusalem hired non-Jewish musicians to play every night of Ḥol Ha-mo’ed at their Simḥat Beit Ha-sho’eva (Responsa Moharil, p. 8). However, the general Ashkenazic custom was not to light torches (Ir Ha-kodesh Ve-hamikdash 3:25:8-9).
Ḥayim Abulafia instituted a Simḥat Beit Ha-sho’eva in the synagogue in Izmir, Turkey, to commemorate the Temple, in which they lit many candles in the synagogue and played hymns for about two hours, with dancing by elders and notables (Ḥayim Va-ḥesed 497:11). Similarly, the Rabbi of Tripoli in 5570/1810, R. Avraham Ḥayim Adadi, wrote that they customarily celebrated on Ḥol Ha-mo’ed nights, following the practice instituted by an emissary from Jerusalem. They sang and danced for two or three hours, with the sexton handing out candles to the dancers. Each dancer began by bowing in front of the holy ark (Vayikra Avraham, Kuntres Makom She-nahagu, p. 123). Some even permitted a mourner to play music at the Simḥat Beit Ha-sho’eva, since its joy is that of a mitzva and it commemorates the Temple (Zera Emet 2:157). Some sang selected liturgical poems of the Days of Awe during the Simḥat Beit Ha-sho’eva (Yesod Ve-shoresh Ha-avoda 11:14).

Even though there is no obligation to hold a Simḥat Beit Ha-sho’eva, having one is a mitzva. It is especially important to encourage those who are not studying Torah to participate in the celebration, rather than to waste their time (R. Yaakov Ettlinger, Bikurei Yaakov 661:3).

At the beginning of the celebration, some have a custom to recite the fifteen “Songs of Ascent” (“Shir Ha-ma’alot”; Tehilim 120-134), which have special power to increase water and blessing. The custom is based upon the story that when King David opened the Shitin, the waters of the deep threatened to rise and flood the earth. David wrote the Tetragrammaton on a potsherd and placed it upon the water. The water sank 16,000 amot, and the world became very dry. Then King David recited the fifteen “Shir Ha-ma’alot” psalms, and with each psalm, the water rose 1,000 amot, and the world was once again hydrated (Sukka 53a-b).

13. The Jews and the Nations of the World

Sukkot is special in that the nations of the world also have a part in it. The Sages say that the seventy bulls that we are commanded to sacrifice during the seven days of Sukkot correspond to the seventy nations of the world (Sukka 55b). As we have already learned (section 7 above), on Sukkot it is revealed that nothing is not connected to sanctity, so the positive value of the world’s nations is illuminated as well. The order in which the sacrifices are offered is unusual. On the first day we offer thirteen bulls, on the second day twelve. The numbers continue to descend each day, until on the seventh day we offer seven bulls (Bamidbar 29:12-34). The idea is that on the inside, deep down, the root of every nation in the world is good, though sometimes their actions manifest terrible evil. It is therefore necessary to separate the good from the bad. By gradually decreasing the number of sacrificial bulls, the negative forces dissipate until, on the seventh day, we offer only seven, the number that is most suitable for revealing sanctity in this world, which was created in seven days (Ein Ayah on Shabbat 2:7).

The prophet Zechariah teaches us that in the future, Sukkot will serve as a litmus test for the nations of the world. Those who ascend to Jerusalem to worship God and to celebrate with the Jewish people will merit great blessing, as we read:

All who survive of all those nations that came up against Jerusalem shall make a pilgrimage year by year to bow low to the King, Lord of Hosts, and to observe the festival of Sukkot. Any of the earth’s peoples that do not make the pilgrimage to Jerusalem to bow low to the King, Lord of Hosts, shall receive no rain. If the Egyptian people do not go up…the Lord will bring on them the plague He inflicts on the nations that do not go up to celebrate the festival of Sukkot. Such shall be the punishment of Egypt and of all other nations that do not come up to observe the festival of Sukkot…. (Zechariah 14:16-19)

Our relationship with non-Jews is complicated. Over the course of our long history, they have often treated us very badly; nevertheless, our basic attitude toward them is positive. The Sages tell us, “Woe to the non-Jews, who sustained a loss that they are not even aware of. During Temple times, the altar atoned for them. Now, what atones for them?” (Sukka 55b). A midrash makes a similar point. “Israel said: ‘Master of the world, we sacrifice seventy bulls on their behalf. By rights they should love us. Yet they hate us!’ The verse (Tehilim 109:4) attests to this, stating, ‘They repay my love with accusations, but I continue to pray’” (Bamidbar Rabba 21:24).

Zohar explains in many places that we offer seventy bulls for the seventy nations out of love, in order to increase abundance and blessing for them (Zohar I 221a; III 256a). Even if they hate us, by offering the bulls on their behalf, we ensure that they are too preoccupied with their bounty to torment us (ibid. I 64a; II 187a). Ultimately, though, if they are ingrates and still hate us out of wickedness, the abundance they receive will become a stumbling block for them. Mishlei (25:21-22) attests to this: “If your enemy is hungry, give him bread to eat; if he is thirsty, give him water to drink. You will be heaping live coals on his head, and the Lord will reward you” (Zohar III 259a and 24a-b).

The responsibility that we show for the entire world reveals more of Israel’s special qualities. These qualities find expression on Shemini Atzeret, when we experience the special love between God and Israel. For this reason, we offer only one bull then. In the words of our Sages (Sukka 55b), “Why do we offer only a single bull on Shemini Atzeret? It corresponds to a singular nation. This can be compared to a king of flesh and blood who told his servants, ‘Make me a big feast.’ Then on the last day of the celebration he said to his favorite, ‘Make me a small banquet, so that I can enjoy your company alone.’” (See 7:2 below.)

14. The Custom of Ushpizin

As we have seen (Peninei Halakha: Mo’adim 1:11), the Torah commands us to include the poor and lonely in the festivities and to invite them to share our meals, as we read, “You shall rejoice in your festival, with your son and daughter, your male and female slave, the Levite, the stranger, the fatherless, and the widow in your communities” (Devarim 16:14). These are the guests (ushpizin) whom it is a mitzva to invite into the sukka. According to Zohar, it is also appropriate to invite “supernal guests” (“ushpizin ila’in”) into the sukka. These are the souls of seven righteous people, Avraham, Yitzḥak, Yaakov, Yosef, Moshe, Aharon, and David, whose light shines on Sukkot. On each day of the festival, the light of one of them shines brightest, and he enters the sukka first, accompanied by the other six.

Zohar on Parashat Emor tells of the practice of R. Hamnuna Saba. Entering the sukka made him happy, so he would stand in its doorway and say: “Sit down, supernal guests, sit down. Sit down, guests of faith, sit down.” He would then joyously raise his hands and exclaim: “Happy is our lot, happy is the lot of Israel, who sits in the sukka!” For everyone who has a share in the holy nation and the holy land is sitting in the shelter of faith and receiving the light of the seven righteous visitors. He will rejoice in this world and the next.

Nevertheless, one must make sure to bring joy to the poor, since the share of the seven righteous whom he invited to the sukka belongs to them. If one sits in the shelter of faith and invites supernal guests of faith but does not give their share to the poor, these righteous guests get up to leave. They are not interested in being hosted by a miser, as Scripture states: “Do not eat of a stingy man’s food; do not crave his dainties” (Mishlei 23:6-7). The table he set for the meal is his own table, not God’s table, and of him it is written: “I will strew dung upon your faces, the dung of your festival sacrifices” (Malakhi 2:3). Woe to this host when the supernal guests desert his table. When our patriarch Avraham – who spent his whole life standing at the crossroads inviting guests and setting the table for them – sees that this person has set his table without including the poor, he gets up and announces, “Move away from the tents of these wicked men” (Bamidbar 16:26). All the rest of the supernal guests then file out after him. On their way out, Yitzḥak says, “The belly of the wicked will be empty” (Mishlei 13:25), and Yaakov says, “The morsel you eat you will vomit” (ibid. 23:8). The rest of the righteous say, “For all tables are covered with vomit and filth without the Omnipresent” (Yeshayahu 28:8).

Zohar further states that one should not say, “First I will eat and drink to satiety, and then I will give what is left to the poor.” Rather, he should first give to the poor. If he acts properly, bringing joy to the poor and filling them to satiety, God delights in him. Avraham says of him, “Then you can seek the favor of the Lord. I will set you astride the heights of the earth” (Yeshayahu 58:14), and the rest of the righteous apply various positive verses to him. Happy is the person who merits this (Zohar III 103b-104a).

We must add that if someone gives charity to the poor before the festival in accordance with his means, he is also fulfilling the mitzva by making sure that they are included in the festival joy. Nevertheless, hosting them in his sukka is a greater mitzva. Nowadays it is particularly important to make a point of inviting people, as there are very few people today who are actually starving, but there are many people who are sad and lonely. It is a great mitzva to make efforts to invite them to join in the celebration.

Many siddurim include a formula for inviting the ushpizin ila’in each day. The traditional order is: Avraham, Yitzḥak, Yaakov, Moshe, Aharon, Yosef, David. This is the custom of Sephardim and Ḥasidim (Kaf Ha-ḥayim 639:8). In Ashkenazic custom, the order is Avraham, Yitzḥak, Yaakov, Yosef, Moshe, Aharon, David (Siddur Ha-Shlah). Some people make a point of having Torah discussions each day about that day’s guest. Some people, who share a name with one of the ushpizin, make a party in their sukka on the night of “their” supernal guest, setting out refreshments and wine for their human guests, and inviting Torah scholars to speak.

01. A Temporary Residence

There is a mitzva to reside in a sukka throughout the seven days of the Sukkot festival, as the Torah says, “You shall dwell in sukkot seven days; all citizens in Israel shall dwell in sukkot, in order that future generations may know that I made the Israelites dwell in sukkot when I brought them out of the land of Egypt, I the Lord your God” (Vayikra 23:42-43). Similarly, it states, “After the ingathering from your threshing floor and your vat, you shall hold the seven-day festival of Sukkot” (Devarim 16:13).

The sukka that we are commanded to live in during the festival is defined as a “dirat ara’i” – a “temporary residence” (Sukka 2a). Thus, a sukka must meet these two basic conditions: 1) it must be temporary; 2) it must be habitable. Therefore, if a sukka is less than 10 tefaḥim (c. 80 cm) tall or less than 7 tefaḥim (c. 56 cm) wide, it is invalid, because it is too cramped even for one person to sit in it and eat. Even if a sukka is very long, if it is less than 7 tefaḥim wide, it is invalid (Sukka 2a; MB 634:1).

Since a sukka is a temporary residence, it does not need four walls. It is sufficient for it to have two walls plus a tefaḥ of a third. This partial third wall must be within 3 tefaḥim of one of the other walls (as we explain below in section 6).

If a sukka is more than 20 amot (c. 9 meters) tall, it is invalid, because a sukka must be a temporary residence, while sekhakh placed at such a height needs the support of a permanent structure. Note, however, that the main expression of the sukka’s impermanence is the sekhakh; the walls may be permanent, as long as this is not necessary to support the sekhakh. Thus, one may retract the roof in the home and place sekhakh instead of a ceiling; since the sekhakh is less than 20 amot high, it does not need the support of a permanent structure.^[1]

A house with a wooden ceiling is invalid for use as a sukka, because sekhakh must be impermanent, whereas a ceiling is permanent. To make sure that people do not mistakenly permit wooden ceilings, the Sages ruled that lumber commonly used to make ceilings may not be used as sekhakh (as we will explain below in section 4).

Since a sukka is a temporary residence, it may be built on a wagon, motor vehicle, or boat, and it remains valid even during travel, as long as its walls and sekhakh can withstand an ordinary wind (SA 628:2; SHT ad loc. 11). As a temporary residence, a sukka does not require a mezuza (SA YD 286:11).

A sukka is invalid if its walls are unable to withstand an ordinary wind or if its sekhakh is made of leaves or greenery that will wither and fall during the course of the festival. In both of these cases, it is not even considered a temporary residence (SA 628:2; 629:12).

02. What Materials May Be Used for Sekhakh?

The sekhakh is the primary component of the sukka; after all, it gives the sukka its name. Sekhakh must meet the following three requirements:

• It must be made from plant matter.
• It must be detached from its source.
• It must not have been processed in a way that renders it susceptible to tum’a.

Let us explain further.

The first requirement is that the sekhakh must be made from something that grew from the ground, that is, plant matter, like trees and shrubs. Metal, dirt, and plastic, though they originate in the ground, are invalid, as they do not grow. Animal skins are not considered to have grown from the ground, even though they are from animals that were nourished by the earth.

The second requirement is that the sekhakh be detached from its source. Therefore, climbing plants and tree branches are invalid.

The third requirement is that the sekhakh not be susceptible to tum’a (ritual impurity). As a rule, anything in its raw, natural state is not susceptible to tum’a, but after it has been processed and manufactured for human use, it is susceptible to tum’a. For instance, tree trunks, branches, and even straight wooden beams used in building cannot become tamei. But if they are made into articles (kelim) like chairs or beds, they can become tamei and are invalid for use as sekhakh. When an object goes from being raw material to being a significant article, it becomes susceptible to tum’a. Then, if it comes into contact with a dead body or something else that conducts tum’a, it becomes tamei. Once plant material has been processed and become susceptible to tum’a, it is invalid as sekhakh, even if it has not actually become tamei.

Fruits and vegetables that are fit for human consumption are susceptible to tum’a and invalid as sekhakh. However, if they are fit only for animal consumption, they are not susceptible to tum’a and may be used as sekhakh (SA 629:9-11).

A straw or reed mat that was made for sitting or sleeping is susceptible to tum’a and is invalid as sekhakh. However, if it is made to be used as sekhakh or as an awning, it is not susceptible to tum’a and may be used as sekhakh. In a locale where mats are generally made only for sitting or sleeping, then even if one is made for sekhakh it may not be used, because of how it would be perceived (SA and Rema 629:6).

Even though broken parts of beds or other furniture are not susceptible to tum’a, the Sages forbid using them as sekhakh, out of concern that people might mistakenly think that these items can be used for sekhakh even when they are susceptible to tum’a (SA ibid. 1-2).^[2]

The Sages forbid using flax as sekhakh once the process of making it into thread has begun, since its natural shape has been altered. Therefore, one may not use paper or cardboard made from wood pulp, since they underwent processing that altered their natural shape. Likewise, cotton wool may not be used as sekhakh (Yerushalmi; Rambam; MB 629:13).

03. The Shade Must Exceed the Sun

The sekhakh must provide protection from the sun. As long as the sekhakh blocks most of the sun’s rays, the sukka is kosher, as the halakhic principle that “most is tantamount to all (rubo ke-khulo)” is invoked (Sukka 2a). This is measured at the level of the sekhakh, so even if at the floor of the sukka it seems that there is more sun than shade, as long as the shade exceeds the sun at the level of the sekhakh, the sukka is kosher. This is because, as the sun’s rays descend, they become broader but also weaken, so in truth there is more shade than sun.

Le-khatḥila, the sekhakh should provide plenty of shade, so that it is pleasant to sit in the sukka. At the same time, it should not be so thick that it is like a permanent home. That is, ideally it is preferable that stars be visible through the sekhakh at night, or at least sunlight should be visible during the day. Be-di’avad, however, even if no ray of sun can penetrate the sekhakh, it is still kosher (SA 631:3). If the sekhakh is so thick that even rain cannot penetrate, some maintain that the sukka is invalid, because it is like a permanent home (Rabbeinu Tam). One should defer to this view. However, under pressing circumstances, when it is impossible to thin the sekhakh, such as on Shabbat and Yom Tov, one may sit in such a sukka and even recite the berakha upon doing so.^[3]

If the shade exceeds the sun for most of the sekhakh’s coverage, but the sun exceeds the shade in a small part, the entire sukka is kosher, and even those sitting beneath the sparse sekhakh may recite the berakha over sitting in a sukka.^[4]

Sometimes sekhakh is not laid out flat, so at certain times of the day the sunny areas are larger, and at other times the shady areas are larger. In practice, we determine the status of the sukka based on the situation at noon. If it is mostly shaded, it is kosher; if not, it is invalid. (In some instances, even when there is more sun, we consider the sekhakh as though it were laid flat, and if that would make it so that it has more shade than sun, it is kosher; see SA 631:5.)

04. Planks and Mats

A structure whose ceiling is made out of beams and planks is not a kosher sukka. Although the beams and planks themselves could be acceptable as sekhakh, as they are from plant matter and are not susceptible to tum’a, nevertheless, since the sukka must be a temporary residence, the ceiling of a permanent residence renders it invalid as a sukka.

So that people do not mistakenly sit under a ceiling of beams or planks, the Sages decreed against using planks that are at least 4 tefaḥim (c. 30 cm) wide, as they resemble ceiling beams (Sukka 14a). Nowadays we follow the stricter view and avoid using even planks that are less than 4 tefaḥim wide (SA 629:18; MB ad loc. 49), as it is common to build ceilings out of planks that are narrower than 4 tefaḥim (Kol Bo and Hagahot Maimoniyot). However, beams that are less than a tefaḥ (c. 7.5 cm) wide are not used to build ceilings, so they are acceptable according to all opinions – as long as they are not attached with nails or glue. In times of need, one may use beams more than a tefaḥ but less than 2 tefaḥim wide. Certainly, then, one may use a beam wider than a tefaḥ on which to place the sekhakh. One who wants to paint these planks may do so, as paint does not invalidate the sekhakh.^[5]

If one wishes to use a ceiling in the home that is made of planks as a sukka, he must disjoin the planks from their fixed connection and re-place them. Once he has done something to the planks so that they are not a permanent ceiling, they are kosher as sekhakh. However, if the planks were more than 4 tefaḥim wide, then even this action does not make them kosher sekhakh (Rambam; second view in SA 631:9).

Many people use “sekhakh la-netzaḥ,” which is slats or narrow planks connected to one another with string, forming a type of mat. Some say that this sekhakh is invalid, as linking the slats and planks with string causes them to be considered planks that are more than 4 tefaḥim wide, which are invalid due to the decree against ceiling material. However, common practice is not to be concerned for this, as the slats and narrow planks are loosely connected and flexible, and do not resemble the sort of planks used to build ceilings.^[6]

05. Supporting the Sekhakh with Invalid Sekhakh

Some maintain that just as something susceptible to tum’a may not be used as sekhakh, so too, the sekhakh may not be supported directly by something susceptible to tum’a, so that no one mistakenly uses as sekhakh things susceptible to tum’a or other invalid material. Accordingly, the sekhakh may not be supported directly by iron poles, beams that are susceptible to tum’a, or other materials that are invalid for sekhakh, such as plastic, which does not grow from the ground. However, even according to this view, it is permissible for the sekhakh to be supported directly by a stone wall, as there is no concern that people will mistakenly conclude that stones may be used as sekhakh.

Although the decisive majority of poskim maintain that the sekhakh can be supported by things susceptible to tum’a, le-khatḥila it is good to show concern for the stringent view and not support the sekhakh with things susceptible to tum’a. Therefore, one who uses a metal frame for the walls of the sukka should not, le-khatḥila, lay the sekhakh directly on the metal, but rather should lay wooden beams across the metal and then place the sekhakh on the wooden beams. However, one who wants to be lenient may place the sekhakh directly on the metal, and the sukka is still kosher, and he may recite the berakha in it.^[7]

If one wishes to be strict and not support the sekhakh with material susceptible to tum’a, but he is concerned that an ordinary wind might blow the sekhakh off, he may place heavy wooden beams which are kosher for sekhakh atop the sekhakh. If necessary, he may attach the beams to the sukka even with material that is invalid for sekhakh, such as rope, nails, or plastic zip ties, because these materials are only “supports of the support,” while the supports themselves, the beams, are kosher as sekhakh.

If the concern is that only an unusually strong wind might blow off the sekhakh, then even according to the stringent view, one may tie the sekhakh down using ropes or zip ties, because under normal conditions, the sekhakh will stay put even without them. Their whole purpose is simply to protect the sekhakh from an unusual wind, so they are not considered to be supporting the sekhakh.^[8]

06. The Sukka Walls

Any material may be used for the walls of a sukka, as long as it can withstand a normal wind. The walls need not be airtight or offer protection from the sun and wind. Therefore, one may use plastic, glass, or mesh netting (SA 630:1). Stone walls are also kosher, as only the sekhakh must be characteristic of a temporary residence; the walls can be permanent. Indeed, in some places, the common practice is to open the ceiling and roof of a room in the home and place kosher sekhakh there, resulting in a beautiful sukka, pleasant to sit in even in the cold.

Le-khatḥila it is better to build a sukka with four full walls and a door that can be closed, so the sukka is comfortable and provides shelter from the sun and wind (see Rema 630:5.) Technically, however, since a sukka is a temporary residence, it is not required to have four walls; three suffice. Moreover, the third wall need not be full; technically, one tefaḥ suffices. The Sages said that this tefaḥ must be within 3 tefaḥim of one of the other walls, and the one-tefaḥ wall must extend by means of a doorway (tzurat ha-petaḥ, explained in the note). Since this law is complicated, someone who wants to save on sukka walls should be advised to put up two complete walls, and a third one which is 7 tefaḥim long (about 56 centimeters). Then, even if his sukka is large, and even if the two walls aren’t connected to one another but rather face each other, the sukka is kosher (Rema 630:3).^[9]