Preface

With gratitude to the Almighty for the opportunity to study and teach Torah, we are proud to present the seventh English volume of Peninei Halakha. This volume codifies the laws of the Yom Tov and Ḥol Ha-mo’ed. The first eight chapters cover the laws of Yom Tov – those holidays on which the labors prohibited on Shabbat, with a few exceptions, are prohibited. These are the first and last days of Pesaḥ and Sukkot, Shavu’ot, and Rosh Ha-shana. The ninth chapter addresses the unique laws of the second day of Yom Tov observed outside of Eretz Yisrael, including a discussion of who is considered a resident of Eretz Yisrael and who is not. Chapters 10-12 address the laws of Ḥol Ha-mo’ed, the intermediate days of Pesaḥ and Sukkot, and the unique parameters of what is permitted and prohibited on those days. The thirteenth and final chapter addresses the laws and customs of the holiday of Shavu’ot, the sole holiday for which no separate volume of Peninei Halakha is planned.

This volume joins Peninei Halakha: Laws of Pesaḥ, Peninei Halakha: Zemanim, and two volumes of Peninei Halakha: Laws of Shabbat in addressing the annual cycle of observances and holidays. Volumes on Rosh Ha-shana, Yom Kippur, and Sukkot are part of our future plans, God willing.

In this volume, as in the previous ones, my objective is to summarize the fundamentals of halakha, emphasize and explain its principles, and then move to the practical law. The goal is to be as concise as possible so that one can learn a great deal in a short amount of time. The notes expand on the reasons and sources for particular rulings, introduce additional halakhic complexities, and mention halakhot that rarely come up in practice but are still worth noting.

So as not to weigh the text down with limitless detail, I mention mainly the best-known sources – Shulḥan Arukh, Mishna Berura, and Kaf Ha-ḥayim – where interested readers can find references to most poskim and commentators. When a particular view is identified with a specific posek, I mention that posek without mentioning all the poskim who concur.

I would like to express my heartfelt appreciation to my father and teacher – Rabbi Zalman Baruch Melamed, Rosh Yeshiva and rabbi of Beit-El – to my mother and teacher, and to my dear wife. May it be God’s will that we be privileged to see all our offspring – sons and daughters, grandsons and granddaughters – advance in Torah and mitzvot, establish wonderful families, and increase truth, ḥesed, and peace forever.

I would also like to thank R. Yaakov Katz (Ketzaleh), R. Yaakov Weinberger, R. Dudu Sa’ada, and R. Yisrael Sa’adia, who administrate so many of the institutions that were instrumental in enabling this project. May God grant all who help and assist the necessary wisdom and strength to succeed in their work. May they be privileged to establish beautiful families, and may God fulfill all their hearts’ desires in the best possible way.

I am thankful to the residents of Har Bracha and the students of its yeshiva. It is through the daily classes to them that the issues addressed in the book are clarified. They, too, are partners in this endeavor. In particular, I would like to single out Rav Shlomi Badash for his enlightening comments, Rav Yonadav Zar for his help with the glosses and notes, Rav Refael Deluya for his expertise in the customs of Moroccan and North African Jewish communities, and my old friend Rav Ze’ev Sultanovitch for his wise suggestions and comments. The team that rendered this volume in English also deserves special mention: Dr. Yocheved Cohen, who translated this volume, Rav Elli Fischer, who edited the volume and is the general editor of the English series, and Rav Maor Cayam, who meticulously checks that the English translation is fully consistent with the Hebrew original, and that no slight change in meaning, which could alter the halakhic ruling, creeps into the text.

May we all merit magnifying and glorifying the Torah, participating in the rebuilding of our holy land, and witnessing the arrival of the just redeemer and the building of the Temple, speedily in our day.

Eliezer Melamed

Nisan, 5778

01. The Idea of the Holidays

There are six holidays (Yamim Tovim)^[*] mentioned in the Torah: a) the first day of Pesaḥ; b) the seventh day of Pesaḥ; c) Shavu’ot; d) Rosh Ha-shana; e) the first day of Sukkot; f) Shemini Atzeret         .

We are commanded to sanctify these days. We do this by not working then, by studying Torah, by rejoicing in the festival, and by thanking God for all the good that He has given us. All this leads us to remember the Lord, our God, Who chose us from among all the nations, gave us His Torah, sanctified us with His mitzvot, drew us close to His service, and called us by His great and holy name. In this way we transcend our daily lives and mundane activities. We improve ourselves by perfecting our character and purifying our heart; we strengthen our commitment to Torah and mitzvot; and we recall our vital mission – repairing the world under the sovereignty of the Almighty.

While all the holidays share these basic characteristics, each one also expresses a unique concept which we are privileged to internalize anew each year. The first day of Pesaḥ is the day when God redeemed us from slavery in Egypt to eternal freedom. In order to ensure that we remember that event, we were commanded to eat matza, bitter herbs, and the meat of the Paschal sacrifice on that night, and to tell the story of the Exodus. The seventh day of Pesaḥ is the day when God split the Reed Sea for us, led us through it on dry ground, and drowned the Egyptians who pursued us.

On Shavu’ot God gave us the Torah, through which we repair the world. Accordingly, we were commanded to bring two loaves of ḥametz (leavened grain) to the Temple on Shavu’ot. This teaches us that even the evil inclination, symbolized by ḥametz, which causes grain to puff up, can be perfected and purified by the Torah (see below 13:7).

The first of Tishrei is the day the world was created. More accurately, it was the sixth day of creation, when man was created. We are commanded to make it a Day of Remembrance (Yom Zikaron), to blow the shofar, and to “wake up” and repent. There is an additional day of awe and holiness – Yom Kippur. Since its prohibitions are stricter than those of the holidays, it is not counted among them.

The first day of Sukkot is not tied into a specific event, but on it we remember the divine providence we experienced when God liberated us from Egypt, led us through the desert, and enveloped us in clouds of glory. Sukkot takes place at the end of the fruit harvest, giving us the opportunity to conclude the yearly festival cycle by thanking God for the year’s fruit. Immediately following Sukkot is Shemini Atzeret, which is the final celebration of the year. On this holiday we are privileged to experience extra closeness with the Lord, our God. It is thus a fitting time for us to complete the Torah-reading cycle and celebrate it.

02. Agricultural Seasons and Judgment Days

The names of the regalim (pilgrimage festivals) reflect the agricultural periods in which they take place. Thus we read: “Three times a year, you shall hold a festival for Me: You shall observe the Festival of Unleavened Bread (Pesaḥ)…at the set time in the month of Aviv (spring), for in it you went forth from Egypt…the Festival of the Harvest (Shavu’ot), of the first fruits of your work, of what you sow in the field; and the Festival of Ingathering (Sukkot) at the end of the year, when you gather in the results of your work from the fields. Three times a year, all your males shall appear before the Sovereign, the Lord” (Shemot 23:14-17). Similarly, we read: “You shall observe the Festival of Unleavened Bread…at the set time of the month of Aviv, for in the month of Aviv you went forth from Egypt…. You shall observe the Festival of Weeks, of the first fruits of the wheat harvest; and the Festival of Ingathering at the turn of the year” (Shemot 34:18-23).

It is appropriate for Pesaḥ to be in the spring, when everything begins to grow. Shavu’ot is referred to as the Festival of the Harvest because the harvest of wheat, which provides man with his main sustenance, is completed then. Sukkot is called the Festival of Ingathering because this is when all of the year’s crops are gathered and brought home. At these times, people are naturally happy. In the spring, we are happy because of the rejuvenation of the crops after the bleak winter. During the harvest, we are happy because of the abundance of blessing in the crops. During the ingathering, we are happy because of the variety of good fruit which we have been privileged to gather. We were commanded to uplift and sanctify these naturally joyful feelings through the mitzvot of the festivals.

These natural processes reflect the spiritual processes which take place in the supernal worlds. Pesaḥ is a time of beginning and renewal; therefore we left Egypt then and became a nation. Shavu’ot is a time when the growth process reaches maturity; therefore we received the Torah then (below 13:1-4). Sukkot is a time of joyful celebration of bounty, at the culmination of the year’s agricultural endeavors, so we express our great joy for the Divine Presence resting upon us and for all the positive things which result from our living under God’s protection.

In other words, each festival represents the conclusion of a stage that we experience in both the natural and spiritual worlds. Pesaḥ concludes spring’s arrival after the dormancy of the winter, and is also the time of Exodus from Egypt. Shavu’ot concludes the first stage of growth. It is the time of both harvesting and the giving of the Torah. Sukkot concludes all the stages: we gather in the physical fruit as well as the spiritual fruit which give expression to the close relationship between the Jews and God. In order to link both the natural agricultural processes and the corresponding spiritual processes to the source of holiness, we were commanded to travel to the Temple on these three festivals, offer sacrifices, and rejoice before God.

The festivals are also judgment days. The Mishna tells us that there are four times of the year when the world is judged. On Pesaḥ, judgment is passed on grain, determining how much will grow until Shavu’ot. On Shavu’ot, judgment is passed on fruit, determining how much will grow during the summer. On Sukkot, judgment is passed on water, determining how much rain Eretz Yisrael will receive in the winter. On Rosh Ha-shana, all people are judged (RH 16a). If we observe the festivals properly, we will be judged favorably. By commanding us to observe the festivals, God has given us an opportunity to connect with Him in each season joyfully and thankfully, thus ensuring blessing for the next season as well.

03. Israel and the Seasons

The sanctity of Shabbat is fixed and enduring. Since God created the world in six days and rested on the seventh, Shabbat is always on the seventh day of the week. In contrast, the sanctity of the festivals depends upon the Jewish people. This dependency is twofold. First, the unique idea of each festival was revealed through the Jews. On Pesaḥ, God redeemed the Jews from Egypt; on Shavu’ot, God gave the Torah to the Jews; and on Sukkot, we remember the special divine providence experienced by the Jews. On Rosh Ha-shana, the Jews stand as emissaries for all creation, crowning God as ruler of the world.

Second, in practice, the timing of the festivals depends upon the Hebrew calendar, whose months are sanctified by the Jewish people. In other words, even though a Hebrew month is based on the lunar cycle, seeing the new moon does not automatically inaugurate and sanctify the incoming month. Only the beit din can sanctify the month, based on Jewish attestations to seeing the new moon. The Torah instructs: “This month shall mark for you (lakhem) the beginning of the months” (Shemot 12:2). The Gemara expounds: “This testimony is handed over to you (lakhem)” (RH 22a).

It is true that we now have a set calendar instead. This is because approximately 300 years after the destruction of the Second Temple, the sages of Eretz Yisrael, under the leadership of Hillel the Second, understood that due to the exigencies of exile, it would be difficult for them to continue sanctifying the months. Therefore, they used a formula to calculate the calendar and to sanctify the months and years for the foreseeable future. Nevertheless, sanctification of the months is still dependent upon the Jews living in Eretz Yisrael, who calculate the months based on the formulas of the calendar and thus sanctify them. If, God forbid, the Jews were to disappear from Eretz Yisrael, the set calendar would not be binding, and the months and festivals would cease to exist. Fortunately, God promised us that this would never happen (MT, Laws of Sanctification of the New Moon 5:1-3; Sefer Ha-mitzvot §153; Peninei Halakha: Zemanim 1:3 n. 3).

We see that the sanctity of the festivals is dependent upon the Jews, which is why the Sages formulated the festival berakha in the Amida and Kiddush as “Blessed are You, Lord, Who sanctifies Israel and the seasons.” At first glance this would seem difficult. As is well known, we do not end a berakha by referring to two themes. Nevertheless, since the Jews sanctify the festivals, these two themes are not considered distinct; God sanctifies the festivals through the people of Israel (Berakhot 49a). In contrast, the sanctity of Shabbat is fixed and enduring, established by God. Accordingly, the formulation of the Shabbat berakha is “Blessed are You, Lord, Who sanctifies Shabbat” (Pesaḥim 117b). Therefore, even though Shabbat is holier than and superior to the festivals, there is more of a mitzva to rejoice on the festivals, because the value of our deeds in this world is more apparent then.

Since the sanctity of the festivals is dependent upon the Jews, the sanctity of the Jewish people is revealed on the festivals and is absorbed by each and every Jew. This expresses Jewish unity, as does each festival in its own way. On Shavu’ot, we received the Torah when we stood united facing the mountain (below 13:6). On Pesaḥ, the korban Pesaḥ hints at the unity of the Jewish people and its uniqueness (Maharal, Gevurot Hashem, pp. 36-37). On Sukkot, bundling together the four species expresses the unity among all parts of the nation.

Along these lines, in order not to create divisions among the pilgrims, on the festivals the Sages were lenient when it came to amei ha-aretz (those less knowledgeable). During the rest of the year, the Sages declared that the touch of an am ha-aretz rendered items impure, since some of them were not careful about the laws concerning purity and impurity. On the festivals, however, the Sages taught that one could rely upon their word for purity purposes. If an am ha-aretz declared that he was pure, he was to be believed, and his touch would not render food or sacrifices impure. The Sages connect this with the verse: “Gathered against the city were all the men of Israel, united as one man, friends” (Shoftim 20:11). We see that when everyone gathers together, they are all deemed friends, and thus reliable about matters of purity (Ḥagiga 26a; the Hebrew for friends is “ḥaverim,” which was also the rabbinic term for those who were careful about the laws of purity). The Sages also point to the verse: “Jerusalem is built like a city that is closely compacted together (ḥubra lah)” (Tehilim 122:3). We see that Jerusalem, the city of festival pilgrimage, turns all Jews into ḥaverim (y. Ḥagiga 3:6).

04. Shabbat and the Holidays – the Mitzvot and Their Punishments

Each of the six holidays mentioned above is the subject of a positive commandment to refrain from melakha (constructive labor) as well as a negative commandment against melakha. Thus, there are twelve mitzvot pertaining to resting on Yom Tov.^[1] In contrast, there are only two mitzvot that deal with resting on Shabbat – a positive commandment to refrain from melakha and a negative commandment against melakha (Peninei Halakha: Shabbat 9:1). This is because every Shabbat conveys the same message, whereas each holiday has a unique meaning. Accordingly, we are commanded separately concerning each holiday.

The common denominator of Shabbat and the holidays is that in both cases there is a positive commandment to refrain from melakha as well as a negative commandment against melakha. One who refrains from melakha on Shabbat or Yom Tov fulfills a positive commandment, and one who engages in melakha is both negating a positive commandment and transgressing a negative one. Because shevita (refraining from melakha) is a requirement not just on Shabbat but on the holidays as well, holidays are called “Shabbaton” and occasionally even “Shabbat” (Menaḥot 65b).

However, the severity of the restriction on melakha is not uniform. On Shabbat, all melakha is forbidden (see Peninei Halakha: Shabbat 9:1-2), while on Yom Tov, domestic melakha necessary for food preparation is permitted; the only forbidden melakha is that which is work-related (“melekhet avoda”). The general principle is that the holier the day, the more we must submit to divine providence, and the more we refrain from melakha (see below 3:1 and 10:7).

The punishment for Shabbat desecration is also more severe than the punishment for Yom Tov desecration. On Shabbat, if one intentionally performs melakha, despite the admonition of witnesses, the Torah-mandated punishment is death by stoning. If no witnesses are present, he is liable for karet (excision). If he transgresses unintentionally, he must bring a sin offering (MT, Laws of Shabbat 1:1). In contrast, on Yom Tov, if one intentionally performs melakha in front of witnesses, he receives forty lashes. If he does so unintentionally, he is not required to bring a sin offering.

Another difference is that if one unintentionally transgresses several melakhot on Shabbat during a single lapse of awareness, he must offer a separate sacrifice for each melakha transgressed. In contrast, if one intentionally transgresses several melakhot on Yom Tov after receiving one general warning, he incurs only one set of lashes (Makkot 21b; MT, Laws of Yom Tov 1:3).

Each festival has a unique schedule of sacrificial offerings, which differs from that of Shabbat (Bamidbar 28). There are also mitzvot that are specific to the festival and that do not pertain to Shabbat. On Pesaḥ there is a mitzva to eat matza and a prohibition against eating ḥametz. There are also many other mitzvot on the Seder night. On Rosh Ha-shana there is a mitzva to hear the shofar. On Sukkot there is a mitzva to sit in the sukka and to take up a lulav. On Shavu’ot and Shemini Atzeret, there are no special mitzvot, apart from rejoicing, as the main purpose of these two holidays is to serve as an atzeret, a joyous gathering celebrating the culmination of a process. Specifically, Shavu’ot celebrates the culmination of the process beginning with the Exodus and ending in the giving of the Torah (below 13:6), and Shemini Atzeret celebrates the conclusion of the three pilgrimage festivals as well as the culmination of the process of repentance, atonement, and joy.

05. Torah Study on Yom Tov

There is a mitzva to study a great deal of Torah on Shabbat and Yom Tov. As the Sages state: “Shabbat and Yom Tov were given to us solely for the purpose of learning Torah then” (y. Shabbat 15:3).There are three fundamental reasons for this.

First, there is a general mitzva of talmud Torah (Torah study), which the Sages tell us is equal to all the mitzvot (m. Pe’a 1:1; MT, Laws of Torah Study 3:3-9). Every Jewish man is obligated by it, as we read: “Study them and observe them faithfully” (Devarim 5:1). The mitzva to engage in Torah study applies both day and night, as we read: “Let not this book of the Torah cease from your lips, but recite it day and night” (Yehoshua 1:8). Therefore, a person must study Torah all his life. Even on the day of his death, he should try to go to the beit midrash and study Torah (Shabbat 83b). One who stops studying Torah is likely to forget what he has learned. The Torah cautions us about this: “But take utmost care and watch yourselves scrupulously, so that you do not forget…and so it does not fade from your mind as long as you live” (Devarim 4:9; MT, op. cit. 1:3, 10). Anyone who is capable of studying Torah but does not do so is in the category of one who denigrates the word of God (San. 99a). On weekdays, when people are busy making a living, they are limited in how much Torah they can manage to learn, although they are nevertheless obligated to set aside time for Torah both during the day and at night (MT, op. cit. 1:8, 3:13). In contrast, on Shabbat and Yom Tov, when people are off from work, the mitzva of talmud Torah is reinstated in full force. This is why Shabbat and Yom Tov were given to the Jews – so that they could be off from work and able to study Torah. (See Tanna De-vei Eliyahu Rabba §1.)

The second reason is that Shabbat and Yom Tov are holy days given to the Jews to enable them to progress in their Torah study, which will then illuminate the weekdays as well. Shabbat is meant to elevate and illuminate the days of the week, and each festival is meant to shed its particular light on the whole year. Therefore, Moshe instituted that the Torah reading on each festival should be about that particular festival. Additionally, he instituted that people should “enquire and discuss matters pertaining to the day – the laws of Pesaḥ on Pesaḥ, the laws of Shavu’ot on Shavu’ot, and the laws of Sukkot on Sukkot” (Megilla 32a; SHT 429:5). This is also why according to a midrash, God said to Moshe: “Gather together large groups and publicly teach them matters pertaining to the day. Thus, future leaders will learn from you to convene groups every Shabbat and Yom Tov, and assemble in the batei midrash to teach and instruct Israel about what the Torah permits and forbids. Thus My great name will be glorified among My children” (Yalkut Shimoni, Vayak’hel §408). Indeed, delivering derashot (sermons or homilies) of both legal and aggadic nature on Shabbat and holidays has been the practice of Jewish sages throughout the generations. The main drasha, known in Aramaic as “pirka,” would take place by day, and everyone made sure to come and listen to it (Peninei Halakha: Shabbat 5:4 and Harḥavot there). At night as well, on Shabbat and Yom Tov, there would be a drasha. It seems that this was often dedicated to aggada (Mordechai, Pesaḥim §611), and women as well as men would come to hear it (y. Sota 1:4).

The third reason to study Torah on Yom Tov is that it is a fulfillment of the commandment to rejoice on the festival. Torah study makes people happy, as we read: “The precepts of the Lord are just, making the heart delight” (Tehilim 19:9). For the same reason, Torah learning is forbidden on Tisha Be-Av and during times of mourning (Ta’anit 30a; Sha’agat Aryeh §69).

Besides the mitzva to study a lot of Torah during the holidays, there must be words of Torah discussed over the Yom Tov meals, in order to link the food to its spiritual roots. If people gather for a meal but do not share words of Torah, they are considered to have partaken from “offerings to the dead,” because their physical meal has been disconnected from the soul (Avot 3:3; Peninei Halakha: Berakhot 13:8). One must be especially careful about this at Yom Tov meals, for the more significant and enjoyable a meal is, the more it opens people’s hearts and intensifies their feelings. If these emotions are not uplifted with words of Torah and songs praising God, there is a concern that they might turn into lightheadedness and frivolity. For this reason, the Sages condemn the singing of vulgar and inappropriate songs at a meal. If they use verses from Shir Ha-shirim in such songs to do so, this is even more disrespectful:

Our Rabbis taught: If one recites a verse of Shir Ha-shirim and treats it like a song, or recites any verse at a party when it is inappropriate, he brings evil upon the world. The Torah wraps itself in sackcloth and stands before the Holy One, blessed be He, and laments before Him: “Master of the universe! Your children have made me into a harp to play frivolously.” God replies, “My daughter, how else should they keep themselves busy when they are eating and drinking?” To which the Torah retorts, “Master of the universe! If they are students of Tanakh, let them engage in studying the Torah, the Prophets, and the Writings; if they are students of the Mishna, let them engage in Mishna, halakhot, and aggadot; if they are students of the Talmud, let them engage in the laws of Pesaḥ, Shavu’ot, and Sukkot on the respective festivals.” (San. 101a)

06. Time for Learning and Eating

When it comes to the purpose of a holiday, there are two verses which seem to contradict each other. One verse tells us that the holiday is for God: “You shall hold a joyous gathering for the Lord your God (atzeret laShem Elokekha)” (Devarim 16:8), while the other says that it is for you: “On the eighth day you shall hold a joyous gathering for yourselves (atzeret tihyeh lakhem)” (Bamidbar 29:35). The Gemara presents two ways to reconcile the verses. According to R. Yehoshua, the Torah is telling us that we should split up the holiday so “half is for God and half is for you” – meaning half the day is spent on food and drink, and half is spent learning Torah in the beit midrash. In R. Eliezer’s opinion, a person may choose – either the whole day is “for God” spent in the beit midrash, or the whole day is “for you” spent eating (Pesaḥim 68b; Beitza 15b). Even if one chooses to follow R. Eliezer and spend all day learning Torah, he must still eat something so that he will not suffer from hunger, while if one chooses to spend all day eating, he must still pray and learn some Torah in the morning and at night, and also have words of Torah at the meal (Rabbeinu Peretz; Ra’ah; Shelah). Furthermore, if one chooses to spend all day eating, this choice must be made for the sake of heaven, in order to enjoy the sanctity of the holiday and to provide enjoyment for poor and lonely people (Pri Tzadik, Ḥag Ha-Shavu’ot §5; see section 11 below).

In practice, the halakha follows R. Yehoshua, so we should split up the day and spend half learning in the beit midrash and half eating and drinking (SA 529:1). Some maintain that one must be very careful that the “half for God” is indeed at least half. Or Ha-ḥayim declares that if one takes more than half the day for himself, that extra part is considered stolen property (Rishon Le-Tziyon, Beitza 15b). Others maintain that it is not necessary to calculate precisely; one should just learn Torah approximately half the day (Pri Megadim). Usually people do not calculate the hours; unfortunately, the result is that we are very derelict about the time we dedicate to Torah. In order to revitalize this mitzva, we need to start calculating the hours and becoming accustomed to dedicating half the time to God. It would seem that the seven hours that a person normally sleeps can be left out of the calculation. Since a day of Yom Tov with tosefet lasts approximately 25 hours, there are then 18 hours remaining. Half of this time – nine hours – must be dedicated to God. While most of it needs to be dedicated to Torah study (“half for the beit midrash” in the words of Pesaḥim 68b), prayer can also count toward this half. However, this is on condition that the prayer service is not too drawn out with melodies or cantorial renditions; if it is, that time cannot be considered God’s half (Yam Shel Shlomo; MA). It seems reasonable that out of the nine hours for God, three may be used for prayer, but the remaining six should be devoted to Torah study.

Women too have a mitzva to study Torah on Yom Tov, and indeed, women customarily attended the derashot given on Shabbat and Yom Tov. Although women are not obligated to dedicate half of the day to God, one who does so is worthy of blessing.^[2]

07. The Festive Meals – “Mikra’ei Kodesh”

It is a mitzva to have two festive meals on Yom Tov, one by night and one by day. This is one of the primary expressions of the sanctity of the holiday. All the holidays are referred to in the Torah as mikra’ei kodesh (sacred occasions). As the same term is used for Shabbat, in this area the holidays are equal to Shabbat. The Sages elaborate: “How does one sanctify them? With food, drink, and clean clothing” (Sifra, Emor 12:4). Similarly, Rambam writes: “Just as we are commanded to honor Shabbat and enjoy it, so are we commanded regarding the holidays, as the verse states: ‘[Call Shabbat “delight,”] the Lord’s holy [day] “honored”’ (Yeshayahu 58:13). All the holidays [as well as Shabbat] are referred to as mikra’ei kodesh” (MT 6:16; see also SA 529:1).

There is a difference, however. On Shabbat, the Sages ordained, based on allusions in verses (Shabbat 117b), that we partake of three meals, on account of the special holiness of Shabbat. In contrast, on Yom Tov the mitzva is limited to two meals, one by day and one by night (Rosh; Tur). People need to eat two meals every day, and the mitzva on holidays is to turn these meals into notable, festive ones (SA 529:1; Birkei Yosef ad loc. 3; MB ad loc. 13; Kaf Ha-ḥayim ad loc. 24).

It is a mitzva to eat bread at each of these meals (see 2:5 below), and it is a mitzva to have two loaves, just as we do on Shabbat, and for the same reason: since the manna did not fall on Shabbat or Yom Tov, a double portion of manna fell on the day before Shabbat and holidays (SA 529:1; Peninei Halakha: Shabbat 7:3).^[3]

Even though Shabbat is holier than Yom Tov, on Yom Tov there is a mitzva to serve better food and wear fancier clothes than those of Shabbat, because of the special mitzva to enjoy Yom Tov, as we will explain in the next section.

08. The Mitzva of Simḥa

There is a positive mitzva to experience simḥa (joy) on the festivals, as it is written: “You shall rejoice in your festival (ve-samaḥta be-ḥagekha)” (Devarim 16:14). We have already seen that Shabbat and Yom Tov are “mikra’ei kodesh” and that it is a mitzva to sanctify them with festive meals and fancy clothing (Sifra, Emor 12:4). The mitzva of simḥa on Yom Tov adds another layer: having more meat and wine at Yom Tov meals than at Shabbat meals (as explained in the next paragaph). Similarly, there is a mitzva to have fancier clothing for Yom Tov than for Shabbat. On Shabbat it is enough to wear respectable clothing, whereas on Yom Tov there is a mitzva to wear the nicest clothes. If one must buy festive clothes, it is proper to buy them before a festival (SA 529:1; MA ad loc. 4; MB ad loc. 12).

There are four components to the mitzva of simḥa. First, the primary expression of the mitzva is to do something especially enjoyable, which causes one’s joy to permeate the entire festival. Given the differences between men and women, to bring men joy, festive meals with meat and wine should be held (as explained in the next section), and to bring women joy, new clothing or jewelry should be purchased for her before the festival. One item of clothing is enough to fulfill this mitzva (see section 10 below). To make children happy, candy should be bought for them, as this is what makes them happiest.

Second, as described above, the term “mikra’ei kodesh” is applied to the holidays as well as Shabbat, and translates into a mitzva to sanctify them with festive meals and nice clothes. Since Yom Tov has an additional mitzva of simḥa, it is incumbent on both men and women to make sure that their Yom Tov meals and clothes are nicer than those of Shabbat. There is also a mitzva to study Torah on Yom Tov, because it is enjoyable (as explained above in section 5).

Third, it is a mitzva to participate in whatever activities one generally enjoys – like singing, dancing, and going on outings (section 13 below).

Fourth, throughout Yom Tov it is a mitzva to be in a good mood and to avoid things that cause anguish. It is therefore forbidden to mourn, eulogize, or fast (section 14 below).^[4]

One must enjoy the festival and not rejoice in something that is liable to make him forget about the joy of the festival. For this reason, one may not get married on Ḥol Ha-mo’ed. “‘You shall rejoice in your festival’ and not in your wife” (MK 8b). One who gets married is so happy with his wife that he does not pay attention to the simḥa of the festival. However, one may get married right before Yom Tov and hold Sheva Berakhot at the Yom Tov meals because, in this case, the simḥa of the festival is primary, and the simḥa of the Sheva Berakhot does not detract from it but rather reinforces it (SA 546:1-3; 10:4 below).

Even though the mitzva of simḥa is explicitly mentioned in the context of the pilgrimage festivals, Rosh Ha-shana is included in this mitzva as well, because all biblical holidays are equated with one another. Nevertheless, the simḥa of the pilgrimage festivals is greater, as there is a mitzva then to make a pilgrimage to the Temple and to offer shalmei simḥa (festive peace offerings, explained below) (MB 597:1).

09. Meat and Wine at Yom Tov Meals

In Temple times, the joy of the pilgrimage festivals was expressed primarily through bringing ḥagiga offerings in Jerusalem, as we read, “You shall rejoice before the Lord your God…at the place where the Lord your God will choose to establish His name” (Devarim 16:11), and “You shall sacrifice there peace offerings (shelamim) and eat them, rejoicing before the Lord your God” (Devarim 27:7). This is explained below in section 15.

Since the destruction of the Temple, men fulfill the mitzva of additional simḥa by drinking wine and having a festive meal (Pesaḥim 109a; SA 529:1). It can also be fulfilled by drinking other alcoholic beverages, as they are mood enhancers. However, it is preferable to use wine, which is considered the most dignified of all drinks. Drinking grape juice does not fulfill the mitzva; as it is not alcoholic, it is not a mood enhancer. How much wine is necessary to enhance one’s mood? Enough to cause a bit of difficulty with concentration, such that a rabbi would be considered impaired and thus prohibited from giving a halakhic ruling (MA 99:1). Some Torah giants would drink so much wine during the Yom Tov meals that they refrained from giving rulings until the following day (Beitza 4a; Kareitot 13b; Shakh, YD 242:19). The Sages estimate that minimally, to achieve the requisite level of simḥa one must drink slightly more than a revi’it of wine (75 ml), though most people would need to drink considerably more than that to achieve such a state.

Nevertheless, one should not overdo the drinking, as we are not meant to get drunk. Drunkenness is not to be equated with simḥa, but rather with frivolity, silliness, and escapism. We are commanded to celebrate in a way that is connected with life and which infuses it with meaning and sanctity.

Even though the primary way for a man to achieve simḥa is through drinking wine, there is also a mitzva to eat red meat at the festive meals, as this is also enjoyable. Thus, drinking wine is an obligation (ḥova), while eating red meat is a mitzva (SA 529:1; SAH ad loc. 7; MB ad loc. 11). If one prefers poultry or is unable to obtain red meat, he should eat poultry, as it too is festive and brings joy (Ḥavot Ya’ir, end of §178).

The primary expression of the additional simḥa is at the daytime meal. (The primary expression of all festival mitzvot is during the day.) True, there is a mitzva to have an abundance of good, enjoyable food at night – even more than one would at a Shabbat meal. In the evening, though, there is no mitzva to have wine as there is during the day.

Women, too, are obligated to have enjoyable feasts on Yom Tov, but they are not obligated to drink wine. If a woman enjoys wine, she does have a mitzva to drink some. If a man does not enjoy drinking wine or eating meat, he does not have to force himself to do so. Rather, for the Yom Tov meals, he should make sure to have the foods which make him happiest (Sha’agat Aryeh §65).^[5]

10. Women’s Mitzva of Simḥa

It is a positive commandment for women to rejoice on the festivals. Even though this is a time-bound positive commandment, it is incumbent upon both men and women, as the verse explicitly states: “You shall rejoice in your festival with your son and daughter” (Devarim 16:14). Furthermore, a man must join with his wife to eat the shelamim offering that was bought with the money of ma’aser sheni (second tithe). The source is the verse: “You shall feast there in the presence of the Lord your God, and rejoice with your household” (Devarim 14:26). The Gemara explains that “household” here means “wife” (Yevamot 62b). Even though women are not obligated to make a pilgrimage to the Temple and offer sacrifices on the festivals, nevertheless they have the same obligation of simḥa that men do. Therefore, women who did make the pilgrimage would fulfill the mitzva of simḥa through eating the peace offering (MT, Laws of Pilgrimage Offerings 1:1). Women who did not come to the Temple on the festivals needed to find other ways to enjoy themselves (Sha’agat Aryeh §66).

Ever since the destruction of the Temple, women’s mitzva of extra simḥa is fulfilled through the purchase of new clothing or jewelry for the festival, as these bring women more joy than food. Even if they do not wear the new clothing throughout the festival, it still brings joy to the entire festival and constitutes fulfillment of the first part of the festival mitzva of simḥa (doing something special which gives one enjoyment, as explained above in section 8) for women.

In addition to the first part of the mitzva of simḥa, there is a Torah commandment for women to delight in wearing their best clothes and jewelry, as well as through drinking wine and eating meat at the meals. This is the second part of the mitzva of simḥa. However, it is not necessary for a woman who does not enjoy drinking wine or eating meat to force herself to do so. Rather, she should eat the foods which make her happiest.

In the past, it was standard for the husband to be the one to buy clothes or jewelry for his wife before the festival, since in most families the husband was the sole provider and was in charge of the money and the purchases. Additionally, since there was not a wide selection of clothes or jewelry, a woman would enjoy any new item of clothing or jewelry which he bought. The very fact that her husband bought it for her would intensify her simḥa. In contrast, now that there are so many types of clothing and jewelry available, choosing has become complicated. In many families, it has become the norm for the wife to choose clothes or jewelry for herself, and for the budget to be set by the couple in accordance with their means (as explained below in section 12). In order for the husband to participate in the mitzva, it is appropriate for him to encourage his wife to buy an item of clothing or jewelry for the festival. This way it can be considered a gift from him to her, which will increase her simḥa. There are men who make the mistake of spending hundreds of shekalim on a beautiful etrog, while spending very little on clothing for their wives. What they are forgetting is that buying clothes or jewelry for their wives fulfills a biblical mitzva, while buying an etrog that costs ten times as much as a basic kosher one fulfills only an optional enhancement (hiddur).

An unmarried woman, whether single or previously married, is obligated to fulfill all aspects of the mitzva of simḥa. She should buy an item of clothing or jewelry for the festival, have enjoyable festive meals, and participate in enjoyable events, while avoiding sad activities (Sha’agat Aryeh §66).

11. To Enjoy and Bring Joy to Others

The mitzva of simḥa requires a man to include his entire family in his enjoyment, and to include the poor and despondent as well. This is not just a pious act, but is the simḥa required by the Torah: “You shall rejoice in your festival with your son and daughter, your male and female slave, the Levite, the stranger, the orphan, and the widow in your communities” (Devarim 16:14; see also 16:11).^[6] Rambam codifies this as follows:

One who is eating and drinking [on a festival] is obligated to feed the stranger, the orphan, and the widow as well, along with the rest of the wretched poor. If one locks the doors of his home and eats and drinks with his wife and children, but does not feed the poor and embittered, he is not experiencing the simḥa of a mitzva, but only the simḥa of his gut. About such people the verse says: “It will be like mourners’ bread – all who eat of it will be impure” (Hoshea 9:4). Such simḥa is an embarrassment to them, as it says: “I will strew dung upon your faces, the dung of your festival offerings” (Malachi 2:3). (MT, Laws of Yom Tov 6:18; similar statements appear in Magid Mishneh ad loc. and Sefer Ha-mitzvot, Aseh §54)

When we examine this issue, we see that the mitzva of simḥa has two components. The first is to celebrate together with one’s family and household members: “You shall rejoice in your festival with your son and daughter” (Devarim 16:14). The “you” here includes both members of a couple, because a husband and wife are considered one unit. In fact, when the Torah speaks more briefly of this simḥa, only the wife is mentioned: “Rejoice with your household” (Devarim 14:26, as explained above). This teaches us that a husband’s mitzva of simḥa is first and foremost to make his wife happy. Similarly, a wife’s primary responsibility of simḥa is to make her husband happy. We find this in practice as well, as follows. A man’s primary enjoyment is through the festive meals, which traditionally his wife would prepare for him; while a woman’s primary enjoyment is through new clothes or jewelry, which traditionally her husband would buy for her.

As a couple, they then have the responsibility to include the rest of the household members in their enjoyment, as there is no simḥa on the festival without family participation. Indeed, all Jews customarily celebrate the festivals together with their families. Every family member must make efforts to maintain an atmosphere of good feeling throughout the festival, especially during the meals. This includes refraining from saying hurtful things and making efforts to be friendly and bring joy to everyone at the table. Through this, they will be privileged to experience true simḥa. (See below, section 17 and n. 9, about whether it is permissible to leave one’s family for the festival in order to spend the time with one’s rabbi.)

Some Jews are influenced by secular culture, which is estranged from family values and the sanctity of the festival. Consequently, they find their family festival celebrations burdensome and frustrating, leading to tensions, hurt feelings, and fights. The more these Jews improve their understanding of family values and the sanctity of the festival, the easier they will find it to avoid hurting their relatives and to compliment them and make them happy. Thus they will be privileged to experience the blessing of the festivals with joy and peace.

The second component of the mitzva of simḥa is to bring joy to one’s neighbors and acquaintances who are poor or lonely. As the verse states: “You shall rejoice in your festival with…the Levite, the stranger, the orphan, and the widow in your communities” (Devarim 16:14). Generally speaking, in the past the orphan and widow were poor as well, since there was no one to provide for them. As for the “stranger,” a convert who has left his birthplace and family is likely to suffer from loneliness. The mitzva to provide simḥa to the poor is fulfilled primarily by giving them charity, and the mitzva to provide simḥa to the lonely and broken-hearted is fulfilled primarily by inviting them to join the festival meals.

It is noteworthy that the Torah commands us to include the Kohanim and Levi’im in our simḥa. Their job was to teach and educate the Jewish people, both young and old. We can infer that today too, we should provide simḥa to Torah scholars and teachers (Binyan Shlomo 1:33).

12. Festival Expenses

In general, the Sages encourage everyone to minimize expenses and to save money. People can use their savings to help their children train in a profession and start a family as well as to support themselves in their old age. Nevertheless, the Sages do not recommend minimizing expenses when it comes to the festivals. Rather, people should make appropriate purchases, in accordance with their means (Ḥullin 84a; Beit Yosef 529:1). Some people waste their money on luxuries, remembering to be frugal and save only when it comes to mitzva-related expenses. What they should be doing, however, is being frugal when it comes to luxuries, and generous when it comes to mitzva expenses. They should not worry that they might suddenly face unanticipated expenses that they will be unable to meet as a result of spending too much on Shabbat, festivals, and other mitzvot. The Sages assert that even though a person’s yearly income is determined on Rosh Ha-shana, this allotment does not take into account Shabbat and Yom Tov expenses, or tuition for children’s Torah education (Beitza 16a). If people spend less on the festivals, the money they save is deducted from their allotment; if they spend more, their allotment is increased. Thus, if people spend appropriately for mitzva needs and are also frugal during the week, they will not suffer for it; rather, they will succeed in living and saving properly.

If one finds himself with a temporary shortfall before a festival, it is appropriate for him to go into overdraft at the bank or to take out a loan, in order to enjoy the festival. He should not worry that something might go wrong and prevent him from repaying his debt. After all, God assured the Jews: “My children, borrow money on My behalf and sanctify the day; and believe in Me and I will repay” (Beitza 16b). This is on condition that one does not rely on a miracle, but rather has a stable business, regular income, or savings upon which he can draw. It is in such cases that the Sages say that one should not worry lest he be unable to repay the loan. As long as he works diligently and does not waste his money on luxuries, God will bless his efforts and help him pay off his debt. In contrast, one who does not know how he will repay a loan should not take one out to cover festival expenses, as people who borrow money and do not repay it are deemed wicked. He should not ask for charity either. Rather, he should eat simple foods on the festival, following R. Akiva’s dictum: “Turn Shabbat into a weekday rather than accepting charity” (Pesaḥim 112a). As a reward for not taking charity, he will become wealthy (m. Pe’a 8:9). In contrast, if one is already poor and must accept charity in any case, he should accept charity to cover festival expenses as well (MB 242:1).

Some make the mistake of thinking that in order to fulfill the mitzva of simḥa on the festival they must buy the most expensive food and clothing available, just like rich people do, even though this is entirely beyond their means. In fact, the mitzva is for each person to spend in accordance with his means. One who has an average salary should buy meat and wine and other tasty foods in the way that people of average means prepare for an important meal. The simḥa of the meal depends on drinking wine and having more tasty foods than one’s normal weekday menu. It does not depend on how it compares with the meals of the wealthy. (See Peninei Halakha: Shabbat 2:3.)

The same is true for buying clothes and jewelry for the festival – there is no mitzva for people of average means to buy items that are appropriate for the wealthy. The primary expression of simḥa is in the additions made for the festival when compared with the weekday – not in successfully competing with the rich. One who thinks that she can be happy only if her clothes are more expensive and more beautiful than anyone else’s will never be happy. She will always be jealous of others, and the desire for even more special clothing will stain her spirit.

Rather, the main thing is that a person be happy with his lot, and be frugal with his weekday expenditures in order to have more to spend on mitzvot, in accordance with his income. As a result, he will merit blessing. Indeed, the Sages tell us: “Who is wealthy? One who is happy with his lot, as we read: ‘When you enjoy the fruit of your labors, you will be happy and prosper’ (Tehilim 128:2). You will be happy in this world and prosper in the world to come” (Avot 4:1).

13. Singing, Dancing, and Outings

Anything that brings one joy is included in the mitzva of simḥat ḥag. This includes singing, dancing, and tiyulim (outings). The more singing and praising God, the better. Torah giants composed religious poems and hymns to praise and thank God on the festivals. The Sages inform us that the voice of Navot of Yizre’el was sweet and pleasant. He would make the pilgrimage to the Temple in Jerusalem on the pilgrimage festivals, and all the Jews would gather round to hear his singing. Once, he did not go because he wanted to watch over his vineyard, which led to his downfall. Treacherous people falsely testified that he had rebelled against the king, and he was killed (Pesikta Rabbati, ch. 25).

Many people dance on the festivals. They connect this with the verse: “You shall hold a festival (taḥog) for the Lord your God seven days in the place that the Lord will choose” (Devarim 16:15). The word taḥog can be understood as a conjugation of the root ḤVG, which indicates dancing in a circle. This is why the Sages ordained that there be dancing at the Simḥat Beit Ha-sho’eva, which was originally the celebration accompanying the drawing of water for Temple libations on Sukkot (Ha’amek Davar, ad loc.; Pri Tzadik, Sukkot §17).

Similarly, one who enjoys outings should go on them during the festivals. Since they involve simḥa, the Sages permit carrying a child if necessary during a Yom Tov tiyul (Beitza 12a; Rabbeinu Tam cited in Tosafot s.v. “hakhi garsinan”; Rema 415:1).

Unlike the mandatory mitzvot to have festive meals, wear nice clothes, and study Torah, all other activities that provide simḥa are optional. If one finds them enjoyable, he should engage in them; if one does not, he need not. Every individual is permitted to decide what makes him happy on the festival – whether singing and praising God in the company of family or friends, dancing at a Simḥat Beit Ha-sho’eva (nowadays a Sukkot celebration which reminds us of the Temple celebration), going on tiyulim, or doing other enjoyable and worthwhile things. However, he must be careful that all this merrymaking does not detract from his Torah study, as it is a mitzva to dedicate half the day to study and prayer. One who takes great pleasure in studying Torah should dedicate even more time to it once he has fulfilled the mitzva of enjoying the festive meals.^[7]

14. The Festive Mood and the Prohibition of Mourning and Sadness

It is a mitzva to be in good spirits for the duration of the festival. At first glance, this would seem to be an easy mitzva, since everybody wants to be happy. However, in practice this mitzva is difficult to observe, because ever-present worries and tensions work against one’s happiness. Even so, this is the mitzva incumbent upon us during the festivals. We must transcend our worries and concerns, overcome our disappointments, and rejoice with God. To do so, we must remember that God chose us from among all the nations, gave us His Torah, sanctified us with His mitzvot, and brought us to the good land so that we could merit full and good lives – lives that have value and sanctity, and that can elevate the entire world and endow it with blessing and guidance until the world is completely redeemed. We will thus consider the great mission with which each of us is tasked. We remember all the good things in our lives. We strengthen our faith and recognize that all the hardships and exiles in Jewish history have had a positive purpose – to refine us, elevate us, and bring us closer to achieving our ultimate purpose. These meditations put us in a joyous mood throughout the festival.

There is no complete simḥa unless both body and soul are involved. Therefore, the festival mitzva of simḥa includes physical enjoyment – eating, drinking, and wearing nice clothes – as well as spiritual enjoyment – studying Torah and reciting the festive prayers.

On the festival, everyone must avoid whatever worries or saddens him. Additionally, he should not lose his temper or get angry. There are people who do not know how to enjoy spending time with their family. At every family gathering, they find a reason to cause a fight, bring up old grudges, and make their relatives miserable. This is all because they do not understand the great sanctity of the festival. Their festival observances are all performed by rote, devoid of spiritual content. As we have seen (section 11), these people should focus on the values and holiness of the festival, and this will help them become happier. They will avoid criticizing family members and keep away from remarks that are likely to be painful. Instead, they will try to compliment their family members and whoever else they meet. They will thus be able to enjoy themselves and bring joy to others during the festivals; these blessings will spill over into the weekdays as well.

Since it is a Torah commandment to be happy on Yom Tov and Ḥol Ha-mo’ed, one may not engage then in sad activities, even if the sadness is connected to a mitzva. Thus one may not fast for penitential purposes on a festival, and may not eulogize or lament the dead (MK 27a; SA 547:1-2). If the deceased is a Torah scholar, he is eulogized before the burial, because the honor due the Torah supersedes the holiday (MK 27b; SA YD 401:1; below 11:5; Harḥavot).

Similarly, it is forbidden to mourn on a festival. If someone dies before the festival, the mourning period ends with the start of the festival. Even if the mourner had a chance to mourn for only one moment, the mourning period ends once the festival begins (MK 14b; SA 548:7). In contrast, if one dies during the festival, the mourning period begins after the festival. During the festival, the mourner should do his best not to cry or be sad. He should rather occupy himself with the festival and its mitzvot (SA 548:1). If it is Sukkot, he is not exempt from the mitzva of sukka even if he is sad. He must overcome his anguish and sit in the sukka (Sukka 25a; SA 640:5). At the same time, even though he is not yet sitting shiva, his friends and relatives may come to comfort him (SA 548:6).

15. The Mitzva of Making a Pilgrimage to Jerusalem in Temple Times

As long as the Temple stood, there was a mitzva to travel there for the festivals: “Three times a year, all your males shall appear (yeira’eh, literally ‘will be seen’) before the Sovereign Lord, the God of Israel” (Shemot 34:23). The Torah also says: “Three times (shalosh regalim) a year, you shall hold a festival for Me” (Shemot 23:14). Because of this mitzva, the festivals are referred to as regalim, as people would travel to the Temple by foot (regel). Those who were unable to walk the distance from Jerusalem to the Temple Mount because they were old, sick, or lame were exempt. Others who were exempt from the mitzva were the blind, the deaf, and the mute, as their “appearance” before the Lord is incomplete. The uncircumcised and the impure are also exempt (Ḥagiga 4a-b; MT, Laws of Pilgrimage Offerings 2:1).

This commandment applies to men and not women, because it is a time-bound positive commandment from which women are exempt. This exemption enabled women, when necessary, to remain at home and take care of the children, the infirm, and the elderly. Nevertheless, if women were able to go and did so they fulfilled the mitzva. In practice, many women did go. If a child was able to walk the distance from Jerusalem to the Temple Mount, his father was obligated to take him along.

Since the men were commanded to make the pilgrimage, there was concern that enemies would come to pillage during the festivals. The Torah therefore promises that in the merit of the Jews connecting to God in the Temple they would inherit the land without fear of enemies: “I will drive out nations from your path and enlarge your territory; no one will covet your land when you go up to appear before the Lord your God three times a year” (Shemot 34:24).

Three korbanot were required on the pilgrimage festivals: re’iya, ḥagiga, and simḥa (Ḥagiga 6b). First, the mitzva of re’iya involved appearing in the Temple courtyard with an olat re’iya (pilgrimage burnt offering), which was consumed in its entirety in the fire of the altar. If one came to the courtyard without an ola, not only did he negate a positive commandment, but he transgressed a negative commandment as well: “None shall appear before Me empty-handed” (Shemot 34:20).

Second, ḥagiga refers to the shalmei ḥagiga (pilgrimage peace offering), only the fat of which was offered on the altar. Some of the meat was given to the Kohanim, while the majority of it was eaten in purity by the pilgrim, his relatives, and their guests.

Third, the commandment of simḥa included the shalmei simḥa (festive peace offering), one or more animals as needed. The more relatives and guests there were, the more shalmei simḥa had to be offered. If one had a separate obligation to bring offerings – such as ma’aser behema (animal tithe) or korbanot neder u-nedava (offerings in which he obligated himself) – he fulfills the mitzva of simḥa by offering them and eating their meat (MT, op. cit. 1:1; 2:8-10).

Rambam writes (MT, op. cit. 2:14):

When a person offers the shalmei ḥagiga and shalmei simḥa, he should not eat on his own with just his wife and children present, telling himself that he is fulfilling the mitzva in the ideal way. Rather, he is obligated to make the forlorn and the poor happy, as we read: “the Levite, the stranger, the orphan, and the widow” (Devarim 16:14). He wines and dines them in accordance with his means. One who eats his offerings without including these others is roundly condemned: “Their sacrifices will be like mourners’ bread – all who eat of it will be impure – for their bread will be for themselves alone” (Hoshea 9:4). The mitzva of inviting is particularly relevant to the Levi’im. This is because they have no portion in the Land, and none of the tithes that are given them are meat.

Normally, the offerings of individuals are not brought on Yom Tov. Nevertheless, the three offerings described above – olat re’iya, shalmei ḥagiga, and shalmei simḥa – are brought then, since it is a mitzva to offer them on the first day of the festival. On Shabbat, though, these offerings are not brought. If one was unable to offer them on the first day, he may do so at any point during the festival. On Pesaḥ, he has until the seventh day; on Sukkot, until the end of Shemini Atzeret; and on Shavu’ot, until six days after the festival. After that, the mitzva has been lost (MT, op. cit. 2:4-8).

16. Making the Pilgrimage Nowadays

The commandment to make the pilgrimage to Jerusalem was nullified with the destruction of the Temple, as the mitzva is dependent on the ability to bring the offerings. Nevertheless, many Jews came and continue to come to Jerusalem for the festivals. The Sages tell stories of how men and women still made the pilgrimage after the destruction (Nedarim 23a; Shir Ha-shirim Rabba 4:2; Kohelet Rabba 11:1). Later, in the geonic period, R. Hai Gaon was one of those who traveled from Babylonia to Eretz Yisrael for Sukkot. In the periods of the Rishonim and Aḥaronim, many Jews living in countries near Eretz Yisrael would make the pilgrimage (Kaftor Va-feraḥ §86; Maharit 1:134).

Some poskim write that even though there is no longer an obligation to make the pilgrimage, one who goes to the area of the Temple for the festival fulfills a mitzva, as sanctity has never departed from the Temple Mount (Ḥatam Sofer; Shai Kohen, vol. 2 p. 523).

During Temple times, there was an additional mitzva to purify oneself by immersing before the festival (RH 16b), as only those who were pure were permitted to enter the Temple courtyard and eat sacrificial meat. However, now that the Temple is in ruins, we cannot offer korbanot, nor do we have the red heifer necessary to achieve purification from the impurity of corpses. Thus the obligation to purify oneself for the festival is null and void. Nevertheless, some maintain that even today one must immerse before the festival (Beit Shmuel, EH 55:10; Sho’el U-meshiv, Mahadura Telita’a 1:123). According to the majority of poskim, however, there is no obligation to immerse before the festival nowadays; those who choose to do so are acting piously. One who finds immersion difficult can fulfill this pious practice with “nine kavim” instead. This means he should stand in the shower while nine kavim (about 11 liters) of water streams down on him uninterruptedly. He should ensure that this water comes into contact with his entire body.^[8]

17. Visiting One’s Rabbi

“One must visit his rabbi on the three pilgrimage festivals” (RH 16b; Sukka 27b). This is so that he can honor his rabbi and learn Torah from him. Doing so allows a person to connect with his rabbi and receive spiritual guidance and inspiration from him. This mitzva shares something with the mitzva to make a pilgrimage to the Temple, as the Sages declare: “Visiting one’s rabbi is comparable to visiting the Shekhina (Divine Presence)” (y. Eruvin 5:1). The holy days when people are off from work are the proper time to do this. Indeed, it is an age-old custom to do so, as we see from the words of the Shunamite woman’s husband. When he saw his wife setting off to see Elisha the Prophet on a weekday, he asked: “Why are you going to him today? It is neither New Moon nor Shabbat” (2 Melakhim 4:23). This implies that on holy days people visited the prophet (the current equivalent of whom would be the rabbi). (See Peninei Halakha: Shabbat 5:15.)

The primary reason for visiting one’s rabbi is to listen to his Torah classes. This tradition dates back to Moshe Rabbeinu. The Sages explain that Moshe instituted that: “They should enquire and discuss matters pertaining to the day – the laws of Pesaḥ on Pesaḥ, the laws of Shavu’ot on Shavu’ot, and the laws of Sukkot on Sukkot” (Megilla 32a). They further stated:

God said to Moshe: “Gather together large groups and publicly teach them…to teach and instruct Israel about what the Torah permits and forbids. Thus My great name will be glorified among My children.” (Yalkut Shimoni, Vayak’hel §408)

People were very careful to attend these sermons, and in this way they fulfilled in an enhanced way the mitzva of visiting their rabbi. However, one who greets his rabbi after services by saying “Ḥag same’aḥ” or “Good Yom Tov” has also fulfilled the mitzva, albeit be-di’avad. Some enhance the mitzva by visiting their rabbis in their homes to hear their words of Torah and moral instruction as well as stories about Torah giants. If many students wish to do this, they should come in groups. This way, they will not burden the rabbi, take away from his personal Torah study time, or detract from his festival simḥa with his family.

The Rishonim explain that the precise parameters of this mitzva depend upon geography. One who lives very close must visit his rabbi every Shabbat. One who lives a little further away should visit him at least once a month. A person who lives a great distance from his rabbi needs to visit him at a minimum on the three festivals, as R. Yitzḥak states (based on Rabbeinu Ḥananel and Ritva; see BHL 301:4 s.v. “le-hakbil”). All this is on condition that he will come home to sleep, because the mitzva of simḥa on the festival must be together with his wife. If, in order to visit his rabbi, he would have to sleep away from home, he is exempt from the mitzva (Sukka 27b). However, there are those who are lenient about this, and others who attempt to find some justification for the leniency. In any case, if it bothers his wife, then even those who are lenient concede that he is forbidden to leave home and make the trip. Furthermore, according to most poskim, even if the wife consents, this custom is unwarranted.^[9]

01. Preparations

Just as there is a mitzva on Shabbat to honor it (kavod) and to make it a delight (oneg), so too there is a mitzva to honor and delight in Yom Tov (above, 1:7-8).

Therefore, everything which the Sages instructed us to do in preparation for Shabbat must be done for Yom Tov as well. This includes washing one’s clothes in anticipation of the festival (Peninei Halakha: Shabbat 2:4; below 11:11), as well as taking a hot shower. It is also a mitzva for one who needs to get a haircut, shave, or cut his nails to do so (ibid. 2:5; below 11:9-10). Cleaning and straightening up the house before Yom Tov is also a mitzva, and men should participate in these preparations, as was the custom of great rabbis (ibid. 2:5-6).

To fulfill the obligations of delighting in the festivals and enjoying them, there is a mitzva to buy good food and drinks in their honor, each person in accordance with his means (above 1:12). One may not sit down to a large meal on the day before a Yom Tov, for three reasons: first, a weekday meal should not be equated to a festival meal; second, so that one has a hearty appetite for the Yom Tov nighttime meal; third, the effort involved in preparing a meal for before Yom Tov can detract from Yom Tov preparations. In contrast, a normal meal may be eaten at any point during the day. Nevertheless, le-khatḥila the Sages say that it is preferable to avoid having a regular meal, or one with bread, during the three hours before the start of the festival (Peninei Halakha: Shabbat 2:7).

On the day before Yom Tov, one may not work from Minḥa time and onwards. If one chooses to work then nevertheless, he will have nothing positive to show for it. This prohibition starts from the time of Minḥa ketana, meaning two and a half (seasonal) hours before shki’a (sunset). The details of these rules are explained in Peninei Halakha: Shabbat 2:8.

We begin Shabbat a bit early (before shki’a) and end it a bit late (after tzeit ha-kokhavim) in order to add to the holy from the mundane. We do this for Yom Tov as well (RH 9a). Yom Tov is accepted either verbally, with a statement along the lines of, “I hereby accept upon myself the sanctity of Yom Tov,” or by lighting the Yom Tov candles (MB 261:21; Peninei Halakha: Shabbat 3:1-3).

02. Candle Lighting

Just as the Sages ordained candle lighting for Shabbat, so they ordained candle lighting for Yom Tov. Lighting candles honors the festival and adds joy to the meal. Since this is a mitzva, a berakha is recited: “Barukh ata Hashem Elokeinu Melekh ha-olam, asher kideshanu be-mitzvotav ve-tzivanu lehadlik ner shel Yom Tov” (“Blessed are You, Lord our God, King of the universe, Who sanctified us with His mitzvot and commanded us to light Yom Tov candles”). When Yom Tov falls out on Shabbat, the berakha concludes with “lehadlik ner shel Shabbat ve-shel Yom Tov” (“to light Shabbat and Yom Tov candles”; SA 263:5; 514:11; MB ad loc. 48).^[1]

As is the case for Shabbat, common practice is to light at least two candles, corresponding to husband and wife. One who wishes may light additional candles. Nevertheless, the wording of the Hebrew berakha remains in the singular (ner), because one candle is sufficient to fulfill the mitzva.

The ideal time to light is before shki’a, at the time listed on Jewish calendars for the beginning of that Yom Tov. Because women accept Yom Tov when they light, in practice this is when Yom Tov begins for them (and not at shki’a). Some light the candles later, before the meal. Those who wish to may do so. They must be careful to use a pre-existing flame and not light a new fire (below 5:1 and 5:3). On the second day of Rosh Ha-shana and on Yom Tov Sheni in the Diaspora (see ch. 9 below), candles must be lit after tzeit, as one may not prepare on the first day of Yom Tov for the second day (below 9:5; see section 12 below regarding when Yom Tov starts on Saturday night).

On Shabbat, the practice of Ashkenazim and some Sephardim is to light the candles first and recite the berakha afterward. This is to avoid doing the melakha of lighting after Shabbat has already been mentioned in the berakha (Peninei Halakha: Shabbat 4:4). In contrast, on Yom Tov when lighting candles is permissible, according to all customs one should first recite the berakha and then light the candles (MB 263:27). One must be careful not to blow out the match; it should be put down where it can burn out by itself.

The Sages ordained the recitation of the berakha of She-heḥeyanu over each festival, to thank God for keeping us alive, sustaining us, and allowing us to reach this special and sacred occasion. The best time to recite this berakha is during kiddush, which invokes the sanctity of the day. However, many women recite She-heḥeyanu as they light the candles, because they wish to recite this berakha with their special mitzva in honor of the festival. Those who wish to do so may (see She’elat Ya’avetz 1:107; MB 263:23).

When planning to light the candles after Yom Tov has begun – for instance, if this is one’s custom on the second day of Rosh Ha-shana, on Yom Tov Sheni, or when Yom Tov starts on Saturday night – it is preferable to have the candles prepared on a weekday before Yom Tov begins. If they were not prepared (and wax is left from the previous night’s candles), one may force the candles into the candlesticks even though this may shave off a bit of the candles. There is no prohibition of Meḥatekh (cutting), because the shaving is done with a shinui (in an irregular manner). It is also permitted to use a knife to remove wax left in the candlestick, if it is getting in the way of putting in the new candles. Similarly, if one uses tea lights or votive candles, he may pry the little metal discs left over from the previous night out of the glass cup. If one uses floating wicks, they may be inserted into the cork disks that hold them (SSK 13:24, 49-50; n. 151 in the name of R. Shlomo Zalman Auerbach). However, one using candles may not melt the bottoms to make them stay in the candlestick, as this is a derivative of Memaḥek (smoothing). Similarly, it is forbidden to cut the bottoms or sand them in order to stick the candles into the candlesticks, because this is a violation of Meḥatekh (Ḥayei Adam 92:2; Be’er Heitev 314:10; SSK 13:48; see Peninei Halakha: Shabbat 18:6; 15:10).

The rest of the laws of lighting candles are the same for Shabbat and Yom Tov, and they are explained in Peninei Halakha: Shabbat (ch. 4).

03. The Yom Tov Amida

The Amida on Yom Tov (the following describes all prayers, except for Musaf, of all holidays except Rosh Ha-shana) has seven berakhot, just like the Amida for Shabbat. The formulations of the first three and last three berakhot are the same as those of the weekday Amida. In the middle, instead of the 13 petitionary berakhot recited during the week, the Yom Tov Amida has one berakha, whose theme is the sanctity of the holiday. It mentions the name of the specific festival and invokes God’s election of Israel from among the nations, sanctifying us with His mitzvot, bringing us close to His service, and giving us the festivals on which to rejoice and to recall the Exodus from Egypt. With this awareness, we ask that memories of us should ascend and come before (ya’aleh ve-yavo) God and be viewed positively. We conclude with the paragraph of Ve-hasi’enu, asking that God elevate us through the sanctity of the festivals, sanctify us through His mitzvot, give us a share in His Torah, purify our hearts to serve Him truly, and grant us the privilege of celebrating the festivals joyously. We conclude, “Blessed are You, Lord, Who sanctifies Israel and the seasons.”

Technically, the Shabbat and Yom Tov Amida could have included all the petitionary berakhot in addition to a special berakha in honor of Shabbat or Yom Tov. However, out of respect for Shabbat and the holidays, the Sages did not want to impose upon people all the berakhot recited during the week (Berakhot 21a). Furthermore, on Shabbat and Yom Tov it is not appropriate to make requests for immediate needs, thoughts about which are likely to lead to worry (Tanḥuma; Rashi; Rambam). Therefore, the Sages instituted one middle berakha instead of the usual 13. Nevertheless, if one realizes that he is mistakenly reciting the berakhot of the weekday Amida, he should conclude that berakha and then proceed with the appropriate berakha for Yom Tov or Shabbat. Since, technically, the weekday blessings could be recited, and since he has already begun a berakha, it is proper for him to finish it (SA 268:2; MB ad loc. 3; for Musaf see section 9 below).^[2]

If one omits the name of the festival in the Amida, or mentions a different festival or Shabbat instead, he has not fulfilled his obligation, and must return to the beginning of the berakha and recite it correctly. If he has already finished the Amida, even if he has not stepped backwards, he must repeat the Amida (MB 487:11). However, if one is reading the Amida from a siddur and is aware of the name of the festival but does not remember mentioning it, he may assume that he did so (Kaf Ha-ḥayim 487:30).

It is customary to use special melodies for the Shabbat and Yom Tov prayers, with Shabbat and Yom Tov each having its own melodies (Mateh Ephraim 625:40).

There is a custom from the time of the Rishonim to add psalms to the Pesukei De-zimra section that introduces Shaḥarit. At the conclusion of Pesukei De-zimra, we add the prayer of Nishmat.

04. The Amida When Yom Tov Coincides with Shabbat

When Yom Tov and Shabbat coincide, the Amida is that of Yom Tov, with Shabbat-specific insertions. Each time both Shabbat and Yom Tov are mentioned, Shabbat is mentioned first, as it is both holier and more frequent. The conclusion of the middle berakha is “Who sanctifies Shabbat, Israel, and the seasons.” Shabbat precedes Israel because the Jews are responsible for the sanctification of the festivals, but not of Shabbat. The sanctity of Shabbat stems from the time of creation and thus preceded the existence of the Jewish nation. It is fixed and enduring (Beitza 17a; above 1:3). At first glance, it would seem that two berakhot should be recited in the Amida, one for Shabbat and one for Yom Tov. Nevertheless, since both of the days demonstrate sanctity in time, they were combined into one berakha. Furthermore, the sanctity of Israel and the festivals is revealed through the fixed and enduring sanctity of Shabbat, and thus these two sanctities are in a sense only one.^[3]

05. Kiddush and the Festive Meal

On Yom Tov night, just as on Friday night, there is a mitzva to recite kiddush over a cup of wine, at the site of the festive meal. The Sages ordained that the sanctity of the day be invoked in prayers and at meals, for the sanctity of the day is manifest through both body and soul.

The content of kiddush is similar to that of the Amida’s middle berakha, and its conclusion is identical: “Blessed are You, Lord, Who sanctifies Israel and the seasons” (section 3 above). One first recites the berakha over wine and then the berakha over the sanctity of the day.^[4] Afterward She-heḥeyanu is recited, in which we thank God “Who has given us life, sustained us, and brought us to this time.” If one forgot to recite She–heḥeyanu during kiddush, he can do so when he remembers, anytime during the festival. It is not necessary to have a cup of wine for it (MB 473:1).

The seventh day of Pesaḥ is the only Yom Tov when She-heḥeyanu is not recited at kiddush, because it is not considered a self-contained festival. Thus, the She-heḥeyanu recited on the first day covers the last day as well. In contrast, on Shemini Atzeret one does recite She-heḥeyanu, as it is a festival in its own right (RH 4b).

On Yom Tov of Sukkot, the berakha of Leishev Ba-sukka is added to kiddush since at this time we begin to fulfill the mitzva of sitting in the sukka.

The Sages ordained that Yom Tov kiddush be said by day as well as at night, as on Shabbat, in order to honor the day. Since the sanctity of Yom Tov had already been invoked in the nighttime kiddush, it is not repeated during the day. Rather, the daytime kiddush is limited to the berakha over the wine. It is customary to add a verse beforehand which relates to the holiday. This kiddush is referred to as Kidusha Raba (the great kiddush), which is a euphemism, since it is the nighttime kiddush at the beginning of Yom Tov which is the important one. It is then that we invoke the sanctity of the festival (MB 289:3). The rest of the laws pertaining to kiddush are explained in Peninei Halakha: Shabbat (ch. 6).

As we have seen (1:7 above), it is a mitzva to eat two festive meals on Yom Tov, one by night and one by day. At each meal there is a mitzva to eat bread. Yom Tov meals must be even better than Shabbat meals because there is an additional mitzva of simḥa. The daytime meal is more important than the nighttime meal.

06. Birkat Ha-mazon

On Yom Tov, Ḥol Ha-mo’ed, and Rosh Ḥodesh, the Sages ordained that the sanctity of the day be invoked in Birkat Ha-mazon, as eating on these holy days is not the same as eating during the week. It is endowed with sanctity and is a mitzva. This invocation is made through the added paragraph of Ya’aleh Ve-yavo. In it, we ask God to remember us in a good way on this special day, to have mercy upon us, and to save us. This is inserted within the berakha of Boneh Yerushalayim, because it too contains a request for mercy (Berakhot 49a; Shabbat 24a; Tosafot ad loc.).

Since eating bread at a Yom Tov meal is required, one who forgets to say Ya’aleh Ve-yavo during Birkat Ha-mazon has not fulfilled his obligation and must repeat Birkat Ha-mazon. This is the custom of all Ashkenazim and some Sephardim (SA 188:6). Other Sephardim maintain that there is no requirement to eat bread at a Yom Tov meal, and therefore one who forgets Ya’aleh Ve-yavo does not repeat Birkat Ha-mazon. Only if Ya’aleh Ve-yavo was forgotten on the first nights of Pesaḥ or Sukkot would one repeat Birkat Ha-mazon, because everyone agrees that at those meals matza or bread must be eaten.^[5]

When Yom Tov or Ḥol Ha-mo’ed coincide with Shabbat, Retzei is recited before Ya’aleh Ve-yavo, because Shabbat is both holier and more frequent (SA 188:5; MB ad loc. 13). If one mistakenly started with Ya’aleh Ve-yavo, he may complete it and then recite Retzei, as the order in which they are said is not critical.^[6]

If one begins a meal on Yom Tov before shki’a and finishes it after tzeit, he still says Ya’aleh Ve-yavo in Birkat Ha-mazon. Since he began eating during Yom Tov, he became obligated to say Birkat Ha-mazon with the mention of the festival (Peninei Halakha: Berakhot 4:7 with n. 6; also see 4:8 there).

07. Hallel

It is a mitzva to thank and praise God for the festivals He gave us; we therefore recite Hallel. However, Hallel is not said on every festival. There are three requirements which must be met for Hallel to be said: 1) the day is referred to as a mo’ed; 2) there is a prohibition of melakha on that day; 3) there were special sacrifices offered then during Temple times. Therefore, Hallel is recited on all seven days of Sukkot – they are all referred to as mo’ed, there is a prohibition of melakha then, and each day involved the sacrifice of a different number of bulls. Similarly, Hallel is recited on Shemini Atzeret, the first day of Pesaḥ, and Shavu’ot.

In contrast, on Ḥol Ha-mo’ed of Pesaḥ and the last day of Pesaḥ, Hallel is not recited. Even though they are referred to as mo’ed and there is a prohibition of melakha then, nevertheless since each day involved the same number of offerings as the first day, there is nothing new on which to recite Hallel (Arakhin 10a-b).

Some suggest an additional reason for the omission of Hallel. The Egyptians drowned on the seventh day of Pesaḥ, which is cause for a little grief. This is reflected in the midrash which records God scolding the angels who wanted to sing His praises then: “My creations are drowning in the sea and you are singing praises?!” True, the Jews of that generation certainly needed to rejoice and to sing God’s praises for their salvation, but there is no mitzva for Jews to say Hallel every year on the seventh day of Pesaḥ. Furthermore, since we do not say Hallel on that Yom Tov, it is not proper to say it on the preceding days of Ḥol Ha-mo’ed, as they are of lesser sanctity. Therefore, the obligation to say Hallel on Pesaḥ is only on the first day (Shibolei Ha-leket based on the Midrash; Beit Yosef, OḤ 490:4; MB ad loc. 7).

Even though there is no mitzva to recite Hallel on the last six days of Pesaḥ or on Rosh Ḥodesh, the custom is to recite it then. However, in order to make it clear that this recitation is a custom and not a law, two paragraphs of Hallel are skipped. (The full Hallel is comprised of chapters 113-118 of Tehilim. On the last six days of Pesaḥ and Rosh Ḥodesh, we skip chapters 115:1-11 and 116:1-11.)

There is a disagreement among the Rishonim as to whether a berakha is recited over Hallel on the last six days of Pesaḥ and Rosh Ḥodesh. According to Rambam and Rashi the answer is no, since a berakha should not be recited before fulfilling a custom. In contrast, Rabbeinu Tam, Rosh, and Ran maintain that a berakha is recited on a custom as important as this one. In practice, Ashkenazim do recite the berakha, even when praying alone. The custom of Sephardim living in Eretz Yisrael is not to recite the berakha, and the custom of most North African communities is that the ḥazan recites the beginning and concluding berakhot (“likro et ha-Hallel” and “yehalelukha”) out loud for everyone in the synagogue, but those praying alone do not recite the berakhot. Everyone should continue the custom of his ancestors.^[7]

Hallel is customarily recited after the completion of the Amida of Shaḥarit. One should try to recite it with the congregation. If one comes late to synagogue and arrives when the congregation is reciting Hallel, according to many he should recite Hallel together with them, and then go back to Pesukei De-zimra (MB 422:16). See Peninei Halakha: Zemanim 1:13 for customs concerning the recitation of Hallel.

08. Torah Reading on Yom Tov and Ḥol Ha-mo’ed

An ordinance from the time of Moshe Rabbeinu mandates reading the Torah every Monday, Thursday, and Shabbat, so that three days never go by without a public Torah reading (BK 82a). Over the course of time, the custom developed to complete the Torah each year through the weekly readings (Peninei Halakha: Shabbat 5:6).

Moshe Rabbeinu further ordained that the Torah reading on the festivals would be topical, as the verse states: “So Moses declared to the Israelites the set times of the Lord” (Vayikra 23:44). The Gemara elaborates that just as Moshe spoke about the festivals, “there is a mitzva to read about each one of them at the appropriate time” (Megilla 32a; MT, Laws of Prayer 13:8). When Yom Tov or Ḥol Ha-mo’ed coincides with Shabbat, we read from the Torah about the festival instead of the regular Shabbat Torah reading. The haftara also reflects a theme of the day. On each festival, we remove two Torah scrolls from the Ark, reading the main reading from the first and maftir, in which we read about the Musaf offerings, from the second.^[8]

The number of people called up to the Torah for an aliya changes in accordance with the holiness of the day. The holier the day, the more people are called up (Megilla 21a). On weekdays, three people are called up. On Rosh Ḥodesh and Ḥol Ha-mo’ed, on which there were Musaf offerings in Temple times (and Musaf prayers today), four people are called up. On Yom Tov, when melakha is forbidden but food preparation is permitted, five people are called up. On Yom Kippur, when all forms of melakha are prohibited, six people are called up. On Shabbat, when the punishment for desecration is greater, seven people are called up. Specifically, the punishment for desecrating Yom Kippur is karet, while the punishment for desecrating Shabbat is stoning (Megilla 23a).

Thus, on Yom Tov five people are called up to the Torah, plus an additional aliya for the maftir. We may not call up fewer people than the Sages mandated, in order not to detract from the honor of Yom Tov (ibid. 21a). According to Rambam and Rashi, it is permissible to add more aliyot, but others maintain that it is forbidden, because doing so would seem to equate the sanctity of Yom Tov with the sanctity of Yom Kippur or Shabbat (Ran). Common practice follows the second opinion, for two reasons: to avoid burdening the congregation, and to avoid having extra berakhot. Originally, only the first and last people called up would recite berakhot over the Torah scroll, so calling up additional people did not involve additional berakhot. Later, the Sages ordained that each person called up recites a berakha before and after the reading. Thus if we call up additional people, additional non-mandated berakhot would be recited. Nevertheless, if there are extenuating circumstances, such as preventing a serious insult to someone, it is permitted to call up additional people (SA and Rema 282:1-2; MB ad loc. 4-5). An exception to this rule is Simḥat Torah, when the custom is to give an aliya to all men.

Yizkor: Ashkenazim have the custom to recite Yizkor, the prayer in which we remember the souls of our dearly departed relatives and pledge tzedaka on their behalf, after the Torah reading on Yom Kippur, Shemini Atzeret (Simḥat Torah in the Diaspora), the seventh day of Pesaḥ (eighth in the Diaspora), and Shavu’ot (second day in the Diaspora). During Yizkor, the two Torah scrolls are held by standing congregants. Common practice is that people whose parents are still alive leave the sanctuary before Yizkor, as it is uncomfortable to have some congregants praying and others remaining silent. Additionally, some are concerned about the evil eye. Yizkor is usually not recited for one who died within the previous year, because that might cause too much pain to the survivor and detract from his holiday simḥa.

09. The Musaf Amida and Ve-te’erav

The three prayer services that we recite each day correspond to the three patriarchs as well as to the daily sacrifices in the Temple. Shaḥarit and Minḥa correspond to the two daily (tamid) offerings in the morning and afternoon, respectively, and Ma’ariv corresponds to the nighttime burning of fats and limbs on the altar (Berakhot 26b; Peninei Halakha: Prayer 1:7). The Sages added the Musaf prayer – to be recited on Shabbat, Yom Tov, Ḥol Ha-mo’ed, and Rosh Ḥodesh – corresponding to the additional (musaf) offerings sacrificed then.

The Musaf Amida of Yom Tov (except Rosh Ha-shana) contains seven berakhot. The first three are similar to those of every Amida, while the middle berakha relates to the festival offerings. We begin by stating that on account of our sins we were exiled from our Land, and our Temple was destroyed, so we are unable to bring sacrifices as we once did. We then plead:

Bring back our scattered ones from among the nations…. Lead us to Zion, Your city, in jubilation, and to Jerusalem, home of Your Temple, with everlasting joy. There we will prepare for You our obligatory offerings; the regular daily offerings in their order and the additional offerings according to their law.

We then mention the name of the festival. Ashkenazim also recite verses pertinent to the musaf sacrifice. We go on to pray that the Temple be rebuilt and that we be privileged to fulfill the mitzva of making a pilgrimage to the Temple three times a year for the festivals. We conclude with the prayer of Ve-hasi’enu, as we do at every Yom Tov Amida (section 3 above).^[9]

Following Ashkenazic custom, at the conclusion of the Retzei section about restoring the Temple service, the ḥazan adds the formulation that was said in the Temple: “May our entreaty be as pleasing to You as a burnt offering and sacrifice. Please, Compassionate One, in Your abounding mercy restore Your Presence to Zion, Your city, and the order of the Temple service to Jerusalem.” The ḥazan concludes: “Blessed are You, Lord, for You alone do we serve with reverence” (She-otkha levadkha be-yir’a na’avod”). Some follow the Vilna Gaon’s practice and instead conclude the berakha in the usual way: “Blessed are You, Lord, Who restores His presence to Zion.” If no Kohanim are present, then Ve-te’erav is omitted (MB 128:173).

10. Reading the Megillot

The Sages state in a beraita in Masekhet Sofrim (14:1) that over the course of the year we publicly read all five megillot (scrolls): Shir Ha-shirim on Pesaḥ, Rut on Shavu’ot, Eikha on Tisha Be-Av, Kohelet on Sukkot, and Esther on Purim. Before beginning each reading, the berakha of “al mikra megilla” is recited. This follows the ruling of the great Ashkenazic Rishonim (Maḥzor Vitri; Hagahot Maimoniyot quoting Maharam of Rothenburg; Or Zaru’a; Shibolei Ha-leket; Maharil). However, many have expressed reservations about this ruling since, apart from Esther, we find no reference in the Gemara to reading megillot, and we certainly find nothing about reciting berakhot over them. For this reason, the great Sephardic leaders ruled not to recite a berakha before reading the megillot, and this is the universal Sephardic custom (Responsa Radbaz 6:2096; Beit Yosef 559:2).

As for Ashkenazic custom, many are of the opinion that on account of the uncertainty, it is proper not to recite a berakha over the four megillot whose reading is not mentioned in the Gemara (Rema 241:9; Taz ad loc. 6; Pri Megadim; Ḥok Ya’akov). This is the current custom of all those who pray with Nusaḥ Sepharad (including Ḥasidim), as well as some of those who pray with Nusaḥ Ashkenaz.

Others maintain that a berakha must be recited before reading a megilla (Levush; Baḥ; MA 490:9; Vilna Gaon). This is the custom of Jerusalemites whose ancestors were students of the Vilna Gaon who helped found the Old Yishuv. It is also the custom of many who are of Lithuanian descent. Those who recite a berakha make sure to read from a megilla written on parchment (based on Responsa Rema §35; MB 490:19).

Of those who recite “al mikra megilla” prior to reading the megillot, many also recite the berakha of She-heḥeyanu (Levush; Vilna Gaon). Many others question this, since She-heḥeyanu does not appear in this context in Masekhet Sofrim, and most of the Aḥaronim do not mention it. Therefore, for those with a custom to say She-heḥeyanu, it is proper to wear a new item of clothing, in which case all agree that the berakha may be recited.

Where members of various communities pray together, it is advisable for them to read from a megilla written on parchment, and for one whose custom is to recite the berakha to do so out loud. All those present can then respond “Amen,” thus fulfilling the views of all poskim. Ashkenazim read Shir Ha-shirim on Shabbat during Pesaḥ, Kohelet on Shabbat during Sukkot, and Rut on Shavu’ot. All the megillot are read prior to the Torah reading.

In contrast, Sephardim and Yemenites read Rut before Minḥa. If it was read during the Torah study of Shavu’ot night, there is no need to read it again before Minḥa (13:12 below). Most Sephardim do not have any public reading of Kohelet. Yemenites read part of it before Minḥa on Shabbat during Sukkot, and part of it on the last day of Yom Tov. They do the same with Shir Ha-shirim – reading part of it on Shabbat during Pesaḥ and part of it on the last day of Yom Tov. Sephardim and many others from various communities also have a custom to read Shir Ha-shirim on Pesaḥ after the Seder is over.

11. Havdala

Just as there is a mitzva to make havdala at the end of Shabbat, so too there is a mitzva to do so at the end of Yom Tov, giving verbal expression to the difference between the sanctity of Yom Tov and weekdays. Even when passing from Yom Tov to Hol Ḥa-mo’ed, there is a mitzva to make havdala. The laws pertaining to havdala are similar in some ways to those pertaining to kiddush. Just as one must mention the sanctity of Yom Tov both during prayer and over a cup of wine, so too, at the conclusion of the Yom Tov, one must recite havdala both in prayer and over a cup of wine. During Ma’ariv, the paragraph of Ata Ḥonantanu is inserted into the fourth berakha of the Amida.

The Sages ordained that melakha not be performed before the recitation of Ata Ḥonantanu, and that food not be eaten until after the recitation of havdala over wine. If one forgets to add Ata Ḥonantanu, he fulfills his havdala obligation when he recites havdala over wine, after which he may do melakha and eat. Similarly, women who do not generally pray Ma’ariv fulfill their havdala obligation with the havdala recited over the cup of wine. A woman wishing to do melakha before havdala should recite the phrase “barukh ha-mavdil bein kodesh le-ḥol” (“Blessed is the One Who distinguishes between the sacred and the mundane”). In this way she gives verbal expression to havdala and is permitted to do melakha. This also applies to a man who misses Ma’ariv and wants to do melakha before praying, as well as one who forgot to add Ata Ḥonantanu in the Amida and wants to do melakha before making havdala over wine.

There are two differences between havdala of Shabbat and havdala of Yom Tov: 1) After Shabbat, we smell a fragrance (besamim). This is because when Shabbat ends, the neshama yeteira (lit. “expanded soul”) departs and our spirit is despondent. In order to revive it, we smell a fragrance. However, on Yom Tov we are not granted a neshama yeteira, and therefore, it is not necessary to revive our spirit by smelling fragrance. 2) Only on Saturday night is there a mitzva to recite a berakha over a flame, because fire was created on Saturday night (SA 491:1; MB ad loc. 2-3). Thus, havdala after Yom Tov has only two berakhot: Ha-gafen over the wine and Ha-mavdil bein kodesh le-ḥol.

After Shabbat, every custom prefaces the berakhot of havdala with verses of blessing, because it is an auspicious time for drawing down blessing for the six weekdays. However, the night after Yom Tov lacks this special quality. The Ashkenazic custom, therefore, is not to recite these verses after Yom Tov, while the Sephardic custom is to recite them.

12. When Yom Tov Follows Shabbat

When Yom Tov begins as Shabbat departs on Saturday night, we must take care not to prepare on Shabbat for Yom Tov. Shabbat is meant to be holy and restful, not a day to prepare for another day. Making efforts on Shabbat in order to prepare for a weekday or Yom Tov is an affront to its honor (see Peninei Halakha: Shabbat 22:15-16).

Therefore, washing dirty dishes on Shabbat in order to use them on Yom Tov is forbidden. Only after Shabbat may they be washed for Yom Tov use. It is also prohibited to clean the table on Shabbat to honor Yom Tov; however, it is permitted to clean it so that it looks nice on Shabbat, even though it will also be helpful to have the table clean for Yom Tov.

Le–khatḥila, on Shabbat that will lead into Yom Tov, one should have se’uda shlishit relatively early – more than three hours before the end of the day. If he did not manage to do so, he should still have se’uda shlishit, even if it is close to Yom Tov. However, he should eat minimally, so that he has an appetite for the Yom Tov meal (Rema 529:1; MB ad loc. 8).

One who leaves for synagogue while it is still Shabbat may take a maḥzor with him. He should look at its contents a bit on Shabbat, so that his taking it will have served a purpose on Shabbat.

Contemporary poskim disagree about whether one may remove food from a freezer on Shabbat to be used for a Yom Tov meal. As a practical matter, under extenuating circumstances, such as if waiting until after Shabbat will cause anguish and a considerable delay to the beginning of the Yom Tov meal, food may be removed on Shabbat. However, absent such necessity, one should be stringent and not remove food from a freezer on Shabbat for use on Yom Tov (see Ḥarḥavot).

When Shavu’ot follows Shabbat, it is better not to announce that one’s nap on Shabbat is in preparation for staying up all Shavu’ot night learning Torah. Nevertheless, one who wishes to say so may, since the main prohibition is to speak on Shabbat about something which is prohibited on Shabbat, and Torah study is not prohibited on Shabbat. Furthermore, such a statement does not take away from the honor of Shabbat, since it is for the sake of a mitzva.

When Yom Tov begins on Saturday night, the Yom Tov candles may not be lit until after tzeit. One waits until Shabbat is over, recites “Barukh ha-mavdil bein kodesh le-kodesh” (“Blessed is the One Who distinguishes between the sacred and the sacred”), and then lights (section 2 above).

Since it is prohibited to light a new fire on Yom Tov (below 5:1), it is necessary to light a candle before Shabbat which will last for more than 24 hours, and from which one can light the Yom Tov candles. If one forgot to do so, he should go to neighbors and “borrow” a flame from them in order to light the Yom Tov candles.

In Ma’ariv that night, we do not recite Ata Ḥonantanu, which speaks about separating between the sacred and mundane. Rather, we recite Va-todi’enu, which speaks about separating between the greater sanctity of Shabbat and the lesser sanctity of Yom Tov. One who forgot to recite Va-todi’enu does not repeat the Amida, because he will make havdala later over a cup of wine (SA 491:2; MB ad loc. 4). If he wants to do melakha relating to food preparation before havdala, he should say “Barukh ha-mavdil bein kodesh le-kodesh.” This law also applies to women if they do not pray Ma’ariv but would like to do melakha before hearing havdala (MB 299:36).

In the Yom Tov kiddush recited that night, we add a havdala section, including the line “ha-mavdil bein kodesh le-kodesh” (“Who distinguishes sacred from sacred”). We also recite the berakha over fire, “borei me’orei ha-esh” (“Creator of firelight”). However, no fragrance is used, because normally, fragrance is meant to soothe the soul’s pain at the departure of Shabbat. When Yom Tov follows Shabbat, there is no pain, so there is no need for fragrance to soothe it.^[10]

The order of kiddush is as follows: the berakha over the wine; the berakha of kiddush over the sanctity of the day; the berakha over fire; the berakha of havdala; and She-heḥeyanu (SA 473:1). The Gemara’s acronym to remember this order is “yaknehaz,” which stands for yayin (wine), kiddush, ner (candle), havdala, and zeman (She-heḥeyanu).

13. Isru Ḥag

It is a good custom to eat and drink a little more than usual on the day following a festival (Rema 429:2), since the aura of the festival spills over into it. In the Yerushalmi, this day is referred to as Ben Ha-mo’ed (y. AZ 1:1), whereas in the Bavli, it is referred to as Isru Ḥag, meaning the day that is tied to the festival. By adding a little joy to Isru Ḥag, we demonstrate that the festival is dear to us and that it is difficult for us to let it go.

The Sages state: “Whoever makes an addition to the festival by eating and drinking is regarded by Scripture as though he had built an altar and offered a sacrifice on it. For it is said (Tehilim 118:27): ‘Make an addition to the festival (isru ḥag) with fat cattle, up to the horns of the altar’” (Sukka 45b). What does this mean? When a person eats for the sake of heaven so that he will have the strength to perform good deeds, and he invites guests in order to make them happy, and he speaks words of Torah at the table, then “a person’s table atones for him” (Berakhot 55a; Menaḥot 97a; Tosafot and Maharsha ad loc.; Avot 3:3). The foundation for the holiness of the table begins with the festivals, when there is a mitzva to prepare festive meals. Accordingly, if one adds a festive meal to the day following the festival, he is extending the festival’s holiness and values into the rest of the year. This is why it is as if he has built an altar and offered a sacrifice to God.

Since the aura of the festival spills over somewhat into Isru Ḥag, the custom is not to eulogize or fast then. Nevertheless, according to the letter of the law, it is not forbidden to do so (SAH 429:17; Kaf Ha-ḥayim 494:48).

In contrast, on Isru Ḥag of Shavu’ot, even the letter of the law prohibits eulogizing and fasting, because it is “a day of slaughter,” meaning a day when sacrifices are brought. Sometimes the festival offerings were sacrificed then. For example, if Shavu’ot was on Shabbat, the olat re’iya and shalmei ḥagiga would be postponed until Sunday, which was Isru Ḥag. Other years as well, many people did not manage to offer all their sacrifices on the festival, so the following day they offered what remained. A day on which sacrifices are offered is considered a day of simḥa. Therefore, one may not eulogize or fast then (SA 494:3; Levush; MA ad loc. 3; SAH ad loc. 19).

01. Why Melakha Is Forbidden on Yom Tov

On the holy days of Shabbat and Yom Tov, one may not do melakha, for at these times we transcend the limitations of this world, with all its sinfulness and cursedness, in which man must work hard to sustain and support himself. Originally, when God created man, He did not intend him to work and toil in order to support himself (Kiddushin 82b). Had Adam clung to God, the Source of all life, his sustenance would have been available to him toil-free. It was only after Adam sinned and ate from the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil that he was expelled from the Garden of Eden, brought curse upon the earth, and was sentenced to having to endure pain and toil to make a living. Thus we read: “Cursed be the ground because of you. By toil shall you eat of it all the days of your life; thorns and thistles shall it sprout for you. But your food shall be the grasses of the field. By the sweat of your brow shall you get bread to eat, until you return to the ground” (Bereishit 3:17-19). Through the hard work decreed upon people to sustain themselves, they gradually make restitution for the sin. On the other hand, on account of this hard work, people are susceptible to immersing themselves in the material world and forgetting their exalted soul. Therefore, God gave us holy days, when we can transcend the sin and the curse that necessitate our working for a living.

Nevertheless, there is a difference between Shabbat and Yom Tov. On Shabbat, all melakha is forbidden, as we read: “But the seventh day is a Shabbat of the Lord your God; you shall not do any melakha” (Shemot 20:10). In contrast, on Yom Tov, melakha involving food preparation for that day is permitted (as explained below).

On Shabbat we ascend to a very high level of faith. As a result of our realization that all is in the hands of God, we subordinate ourselves entirely to divine providence and cease all melakha. We are fully focused on absorbing the bounty that God provides for us. The soul engages in Torah and prayer, and the body engages in food and sleep. In contrast, Yom Tov is more this-worldly and gives expression to our role in repairing the world.

On Shabbat, even in the Garden of Eden man was meant to be elevated to the level of cessation of all work. Yom Tov, though, corresponds to the six weekdays in the Garden of Eden. God left room for human effort in order to include him in the project of repairing and sustaining the world. “The Lord God took the man and placed him in the Garden of Eden, to till it and tend it” (Bereishit 2:15). The difference between then and now is that in the Garden of Eden, the work would have been done in a relaxed, joyful way, and its positive result – improving the world – would have been immediately apparent. Corresponding to this, we may prepare food on Yom Tov, as this work is relatively pleasant and enjoyable.

Even though Shabbat, on which no melakha at all is done, is holier than Yom Tov, the simḥa of Yom Tov is greater, because its holiness is more accessible to us. Additionally, it is in the merit of the Jewish people that the festivals are sanctified. It is thus appropriate that melakha to prepare festive meals for the Jewish people is permitted.

Since Yom Tov is a weekday that the Jewish people transform into a holy day (see 1:3 above), its impact on weekdays is more direct. Cessation from melakha on Shabbat is not meant to guide the six days of the week. Rather, its intrinsic holiness uplifts them. In contrast, Yom Tov, which takes place on weekdays, is more closely connected to the world of action. On these days, we thank God for blessing what we produce, and in turn we focus our actions and consider our role in the world. This is why the Sages tell us that the days of Yom Tov are days of judgment (1:2 above); it is at these times that we earn blessing through our efforts.

The melakhot we may do on Yom Tov are meant to increase the joy we experience when performing a mitzva. Through them, we can perfect all the melakhot we do all week long. Materialistic man is confined and constricted by Adam’s sin; he must work hard to acquire luxury items, which he hopes will make him happy. But they do not make him happy, so he keeps wanting to acquire more and more possessions, becoming enslaved to his appetites and to hard work.

In contrast, one who experiences the simḥa of a festival, through Torah study and festive meals, does not need luxury items, because he is happy with what he has. He is not enslaved to his work, but he sees its constructive value, and he derives satisfaction and benefit from it.

02. Melakhot Permitted on Yom Tov

On Shabbat, one may not do any melakha, as the verse explicitly states: “But the seventh day is a Shabbat of the Lord your God; you shall not do any melakha” (Shemot 20:10). In contrast, on Yom Tov, one may do melakha involving same-day food preparation. “It shall be a sacred occasion for you. No melakha at all shall be done on them; only what every person is to eat, that alone may be prepared for you” (Shemot 12:16). Similarly, we read: “It shall be a sacred occasion for you; you shall not do any melakha of labor” (Vayikra 23:7). We see that it is only melakha of labor (melekhet avoda) that one may not do, while he may do melakha that he performs daily in his home, in preparing his food (Ramban ad loc.).

Therefore, on Yom Tov one may knead dough and bake bread and cake; he may cook meat, fish, fruit, vegetables, and all other food; animals and birds needed for the day’s meals may be slaughtered; when cooking and baking, the flame or temperature may be adjusted upward or downward as necessary; and food for a meal may be carried from one reshut to another.

However, one may not reap standing grain, harvest grapes, thresh sheaves, winnow grain to separate out rocks and chaff, mill flour, hunt animals, fowl, or fish, or press grapes into wine or olives into oil. All of these melakhot are deemed “melekhet avoda” and are forbidden on Yom Tov. The indication that a particular melakha is melekhet avoda is that it is generally done by hired workers, who prepare large quantities of produce to last a long time or for commercial purposes. In contrast, permitted melakhot are generally performed at home for that day’s needs.

It must be stressed that this rule – that one may not do melekhet avoda on Yom Tov – applies even if it is easy, and even if it is for immediate Yom Tov needs. For example, it is forbidden to pick even a few fruits from a tree in one’s garden for a Yom Tov meal. Similarly, it is forbidden to catch fish from a private pond, even for that day’s meal. Nevertheless, the Rishonim disagree as to the severity of the prohibition. Some say that if these melakhot are performed for Yom Tov needs, they are not prohibited by Torah law. Rather, the Sages prohibited them because they are likely to drag out, to the point that one may end up spending the entire day working, rendering his Yom Tov indistinguishable from a weekday; he will enjoy neither Torah study nor festive meals. Additionally, since these melakhot usually are performed for long-term needs, it is possible that if they would be permitted for immediate Yom Tov needs, people would make the mistake of engaging in them for long-term needs as well, thus transgressing a Torah prohibition (Rambam, Rosh, and Ran; SA 495:2).^[1] Others maintain that such melakhot are always prohibited by Torah law, as the Torah permits only melakhot that are primarily intended to provide for that day, while it prohibits melakhot that are primarily intended to provide for the long term (Rashi, Ramban, and Smag; this opinion is also implied in y. Beitza 1:10).

In brief, seven melakhot are permitted on Yom Tov when done as part of food preparation: 1) kneading (Lash), 2) cooking and baking (Ofeh), 3) slaughtering (Shoḥet), 4) skinning (Mafshit), 5) carrying (Hotza’ah), 6) lighting a fire (Mav’ir), and 7) extinguishing a fire (Mekhabeh). The license to light and extinguish a flame was limited rabbinically (5:1-2 below).

Other melakhot are permitted if done in the way they are normally done at home, and forbidden if they are done in the way they are normally done for commercial purposes or long-term needs: 1) Toḥen (grinding; below 4:2), 2) Borer (separating; below 4:4-5), and 3) Me’amer (gathering; see SA 501:3).

There are other food-related melakhot that are forbidden outright on Yom Tov: 1) reaping (Kotzer), 2) threshing (Dash, which also includes Mefarek [extracting] and Soḥet [juicing]; see below 4:1), 3) winnowing (Zoreh), and 4) trapping (Tzad). Still, some rabbinic prohibitions established to safeguard these melakhot are sometimes permitted for okhel nefesh (7:3 below).

03. The Principle of Mitokh

There is a basic principle that applies to all melakhot that are permitted for food preparation on Yom Tov: once (mitokh) they are permitted for purposes of food preparation (le-tzorekh okhel nefesh), they are permitted for other purposes as well. This means that when the Torah permitted certain melakhot for food preparation, it did not intend that they be permitted for this purpose only. Rather, once they were permitted for this purpose, they were permitted for all pleasurable purposes on Yom Tov. The statement that “only what every person is to eat, that alone may be prepared for you” (Shemot 12:16) means that only those melakhot whose purpose is food preparation are permitted on Yom Tov; but once they are permitted, they are permitted for other Yom Tov needs as well. In contrast, melakhot that are not connected to food preparation are not permitted at all on Yom Tov. Thus, one may not do melekhet avoda, which is generally done to make a living, whereas melakhot that a person does on a regular basis to prepare food in the home are not considered melekhet avoda, and he may do them even for other Yom Tov needs (Beitza 12a; SA 518:1; MB ad loc. 1).

For example, just as the Torah permitted carrying food and utensils from one domain to another for the sake of the festive meal, so too it permitted carrying for the sake of other things that one enjoys on Yom Tov. Thus, carrying books and clothes or pushing a baby carriage in the public domain is permitted (SA 518:1; see 6:1 and 6:3 below). Similarly, just as one may kindle a fire to cook and bake on Yom Tov, so may he kindle a fire to provide light or warmth (SA 511:1 and 514:5; see 5:3 below). Just as one may cook for a Yom Tov meal, so too he may heat up water to wash his hands or do the dishes (SA 511:2).^[2]

04. Melakhot Are Permitted Only for the Sake of Yom Tov

All of the melakhot that are permitted on Yom Tov are permitted only for the sake of Yom Tov; it is forbidden by Torah law to do melakha for weekday needs. Therefore, if one cooks toward the end of Yom Tov, such that the food will not be ready on Yom Tov, he violates Torah law, as he has cooked on Yom Tov for the weekday. If the food will be ready before the end of Yom Tov, he has not transgressed Torah law, since if guests arrive, he could serve them this food on Yom Tov. Thus it is not certain that he cooked for the weekday. However, if he intended to cook for the weekday, he violates rabbinic law (Beitza 17a; Rabba in Pesaḥim 46b; SA 503:1).

One may not cook on Yom Tov for Shabbat either, unless he made an eruv tavshilin (as explained below, 8:1).

Even activities that are not melakhot but still require effort, such as setting the table and washing the dishes, may not be done on Yom Tov for the weekday or for Shabbat (as explained in Peninei Halakha: Shabbat 22:15-16).

If one wants to fry schnitzel for a Yom Tov meal, he may make a bit extra to ensure that there will be enough, and he may then eat the leftovers after Yom Tov. However, he may not intentionally prepare extra in order to have leftovers for the week.

If one wants to heat water for a cup of tea or coffee, he may fill a large pot with water so that there will be hot water after Yom Tov. Similarly, one who wants to cook food may fill a large pot so that he will have leftovers after Yom Tov. Since he is placing the pot on the fire all at once, it is not forbidden to increase the quantities (marbeh be-shi’urim). Nevertheless, he should take care not to state explicitly that he is making extra for the weekday. Furthermore, once the pot has been placed on the fire, he may not add more food or water for the week (SA 503:2; MB ad loc. 15).

If there is a pot of food whose taste will be improved with the addition of more meat or fish, one may add them to the pot even after it has been placed on the fire, and even if he is mainly interested in having leftovers after Yom Tov, since he also wants to improve the Yom Tov meal (SA 503:1; MB ad loc. 6). (See 8:5 below regarding what one who forgot to make an eruv tavshilin may add to the pot on Yom Tov.)

05. For Non-Jews and for Animals

The melakhot permitted on Yom Tov are permitted for the sake of the mitzva of simḥa of Yom Tov. Therefore, one may cook for other Jews, since they too have a mitzva to rejoice on Yom Tov. However, it is forbidden to cook for non-Jews, who have no mitzva to rejoice on this day, or for animals, as it is written: “Only what every person is to eat, that alone may be prepared for you” (Shemot 12:16). The Sages expound: “for you,” not for non-Jews; “for you,” not for animals. For this reason, the Sages tell us that non-Jews may be invited to Shabbat meals, as there is no concern that the hosts will cook extra for them in a forbidden manner, as cooking is prohibited on Shabbat anyway. However, non-Jews may not be invited to Yom Tov meals, as one may end up cooking extra for them (Beitza 21b).^[3]

If a non-Jew arrives uninvited on Yom Tov, then if the hosts have finished cooking by the time he arrives, he may be invited to join the meal, as there is no longer a concern that they will cook extra for him. This applies even if the unexpected guest is an important person, as long as the hosts do not insist that he join them (SA 512:1; Taz; MB ad loc. 10).

If one wishes to invite a non-Jew who is interested in conversion to Judaism, he may do so, on condition that it is explained to the potential convert that it is forbidden to cook for a non-Jew on Yom Tov. In this way, there is no concern that the host will cook an additional dish for him, though he may increase the quantity of the existing dishes on his behalf.^[4]

A Jew may invite his live-in non-Jewish attendant to join his Yom Tov meal, and he may add food to the pot before placing the pot on the fire. Since the non-Jew is his attendant, the employer is not overly concerned with the need to honor the non-Jew, and there is no concern that he will transgress by adding to a pot that is already on the fire (Rema 512:1; MB ad loc. 11).

The Sages decreed that a Jew who publicly desecrates Shabbat is to be treated like a non-Jew, and consequently one may not cook for him on Yom Tov (MB 512:2). Latter-day poskim, however, rule that this applies only to people who publicly desecrate Shabbat out of spite (lehakhis), whereas the typical non-observant Jew nowadays does not keep Shabbat because he does not properly understand its great importance, not out of spite. Therefore, he is like any other sinful Jew, and one may cook for him on Yom Tov (Peninei Halakha: Shabbat 1:15).

One may not cook for animals. Nevertheless, as we have seen, one who cooks for himself may add some food to the pot for an animal in his charge before he places the pot on the fire (SA 512:3). Other laws pertaining to feeding animals on Yom Tov are the same as those of Shabbat (Peninei Halakha: Shabbat 20:3).

06. Shaveh Le-khol Nefesh

When melakhot are permitted on Yom Tov for food preparation or other Yom Tov pleasures, they are permitted on condition that one performs them for the sake of something which is shaveh le-khol nefesh, which means that most people derive benefit from it. In contrast, one may not perform melakhot for the sake of something from which only those who are overindulged or ill normally derive benefit. The Torah states: “Only what every person is to eat, that alone may be prepared for you” (Shemot 12:16). This does not necessarily mean that everyone must enjoy it regularly, but that most people, if given the opportunity, would enjoy it. Thus, even though few people have ever trapped a deer and eaten its meat, since most people would be happy to eat the meat, slaughtering it on Yom Tov is considered shaveh le-khol nefesh. Similarly, food may be seasoned with expensive spices that most people cannot afford, because most people would be happy to use them in their food.

In contrast, one may not place incense on coals in order to perfume the room or clothes that one places above the coals, because most people, even if offered the opportunity, would not perfume their homes or clothes in this way. Therefore, one who does so violates the Torah prohibitions of Mav’ir and Mekhabeh (Beitza 22b; Ketubot 7a; 5:10 below).^[5]

07. Cooking More Yom Tov Food than Needed

Even though a Yom Tov meal can be enjoyed with only one dish, one who wishes to enhance his simḥa of Yom Tov may cook many different dishes, as is standard when preparing the most sumptuous of meals.

One who prefers challah fresh from the oven may bake additional challah on Yom Tov, even though he already has day-old challah (MB 506:37). However, since lighting a new fire on Yom Tov is forbidden, he may not turn on the oven. Therefore, a timer (“Shabbos clock”) should be set before Yom Tov to turn on the oven at the appropriate time (see 5:7 below).

One may prepare labor-intensive food on Yom Tov, such as dumplings made from filo dough. He may also cook fruit to make it tastier, even if it can be eaten raw. In general, one may exert effort to improve food’s taste or aroma.

One who wants to dip his challah in gravy may cook meat on Yom Tov in order to produce gravy, since he has no other way to obtain it.

Since a new fire may not be lit on Yom Tov, a candle is lit before Yom Tov, and on Yom Tov that flame is used to kindle the gas burner upon which one can cook. Extinguishing the burner after cooking should be accomplished via grama (an indirect action) or by having the gas on a special timer, as explained below (5:5).

08. Food That Could Have Been Prepared Before Yom Tov

The basis for the permissibility of doing melakha on Yom Tov is to prepare and improve dishes and thereby enhance the simḥa of the festival. The taste of fresh bread from the oven cannot be compared to the taste of day-old bread; the taste of freshly fried schnitzel or freshly baked potatoes cannot be compared to that of schnitzel or potatoes prepared yesterday. Food made today – whether cooked, fried, or baked – is generally better than food made yesterday. Since food may be prepared on Yom Tov in order to make the festival more enjoyable, one need not try to prepare everything beforehand. Even for the first night of Yom Tov, the cooking may be done after Yom Tov begins. One might think that this should not be the case, since if one were to cook that food shortly before the start of the festival, it would be almost as fresh and tasty. Nevertheless, we do not draw distinctions between the meals, and any food that is better fresh may be cooked on Yom Tov. Even nowadays, when refrigerators preserve cooked and baked food better than anything available to the Sages, the permissibility remains, because the food on its own, without the aid of appliances, is better when it is made shortly before it is served.

All this applies to food whose taste is somewhat compromised if prepared a day in advance. In contrast, food whose taste is not impaired over the course of a day must be prepared before Yom Tov. For example, if one wants to have ice cream or compote on Yom Tov, he must prepare them in advance, since doing so does not affect their flavor at all. Nevertheless, if he did not prepare them before Yom Tov, he may prepare them on Yom Tov with a shinui. The shinui does not have to be a major one, as the point is just to remember that it is Yom Tov, so that one does not end up doing forbidden melakha (Levush 504:1). For example, if one generally prepares the food directly on the table, he may put down a tablecloth or a tray and prepare the food on them. If one could not prepare the food before Yom Tov due to circumstances beyond his control, he may prepare it normally on Yom Tov, with no need for a shinui (MB 505:10; SHT ad loc. 8).

This law applies to all melakhot like Borer which are permitted on Yom Tov for purposes of food preparation. If one can do them before Yom Tov without impairing the food, he must do so. If he did not prepare them beforehand, he may do so on Yom Tov with a shinui.^[6]