02. Women are Exempt from Praying in a Synagogue and with a Minyan

As we learned (above, 11:1), a woman need not pray with a minyan or in a synagogue, because the prayer in a synagogue is time-dependent, and women are exempt from positive time-bound mitzvot. Although we learned that communal prayer (tefila be-tzibur) is of great quality, women have other roles, no less important (as explained above, in chapter 3), and therefore they need not pray in a synagogue and with a minyan.

Still, it is clear that a woman who prays with a minyan and in a synagogue earns merit, because she prays in a holy place where the Shekhina dwells and because she has the privilege of answering “amen” to Kaddish and Ĥazarat Ha-shatz, reciting Kedusha and Modim, and hearing Birkat Kohanim.

The Midrash (Yalkut Shimoni, Ekev 871) relates a story about a woman who became so aged that she no longer wished to live. She came before R. Yossi b. Ĥalafta and said to him, “My master, I have grown too old. My life has become dismal; I can taste neither food nor drink, and I want to be done with this world.” He replied, “What mitzva are you careful to perform every day?” She answered, “Even if there is something dear to me, I always put it aside and go early to the synagogue every day.” He said to her, “Stay away from the synagogue for three consecutive days.” So she did, and on the third day she became ill and died. We infer from here that one’s diligence in going to the synagogue daily causes long life, and that this advantage applies to women as well.

The Sages also tell of a woman who had a synagogue in her neighborhood but who would walk every day to R. Yoĥanan’s more distant synagogue. He asked her: “My daughter, isn’t there a synagogue in your neighborhood? Why do you come all the way here?” She replied, “Master, do I not receive more reward for each stride?” (Sota 22a). We learn a law from here: when a more distant synagogue is superior, one who walks there is rewarded for each pace (MA 90:22; Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 3 n. 3). ¹

Nevertheless, it is clear that the mitzva for a woman to pray with a minyan is of secondary importance to caring for her family. Whenever there is a conflict between prayer in a synagogue and care for the children and family, family comes first. However, unmarried women, girls, and women with adult children and no grandchildren at home should make an effort to attend the synagogue on Shabbat and Yom Tov. It is therefore appropriate that we study some rules and laws concerning prayer with a minyan.

03. Kaddish

Kaddish is unique in that it deals primarily with God’s honor (kevod Shamayim), and therefore, one’s response must be with intense kavana, and one certainly should not chatter during its recitation (SA 56:1; MB 1). The Sages say that anyone who answers “Amen, Yehei Shemei Rabba Mevorakh…” (“May His great name be blessed…”) with their full powers of concentration will cause a judgment of even seventy years against him to be torn up (Shabbat 119b; Talmidei Rabbeinu Yona). They further say that when Jews enter the synagogues and recite “Yehei shemei rabba mevorakh..” aloud, harsh decrees against them are nullified (Tosafot ad loc., citing Pesikta). Additionally, they say that the answer to Kaddish arouses mercy for Jews in exile. When Jews enter synagogues and batei midrashot and respond, “Yehei shemei rabba mevorakh…,” the memory of those in exile ascends before God, and He shakes His head in pain, so to speak, and says: “Fortunate is the king who was glorified this way in his house,” and the desire to redeem Israel awakens before Him (see Berakhot 3a).

Since we sanctify God in Kaddish, it must be recited with a minyan, for God is only sanctified by an “edah” (a group) of Jewish people.

Kaddish was composed in Aramaic because that was the language spoken by all Israel during the Second Temple era, and therefore even the uneducated could understand it and have kavana in their response. The following is a translation of the prayer:

Magnified and sanctified may His great name be,

in the world which He created by His will.

May He establish His kingdom,

cultivate His salvation, and bring His messiah near,

in your lifetime and in your days,

and in the lifetime of the entire House of Israel,

swiftly and soon –

and say: Amen.

The congregation then responds: “Yehei shemei rabba mevorakh le-alam u-le’almei almaya,” (“May His great bame be blessed forever and all time.”) The ĥazan continues:

Blessed and praised, glorified and exalted,

raised and honored, uplifted and lauded

be the Name of the Holy One,

blessed be He,

beyond any blessings,

song, praise, and consolation

uttered in the world –

and say: Amen.

That it is the main part of the Kaddish, also called Half-Kaddish, and responding to it is of utmost importance, more important than answering Kedusha (MB 56:6). ¹

04. The Various Kinds of Kaddish

There are four versions of Kaddish, which we will identify by name. 1) Half-Kaddish corresponds to the main section of Kaddish. It is called Half-Kaddish to distinguish it from the other Kaddishim which contain further additions. In any part of prayer in which Kaddish must be said, but there should not be prolonged interruption, Half-Kaddish is recited; 2) Kaddish Shalem (Full-Kaddish or Kaddish Yehei Shelama) is recited after saying verses from Tanakh and contains an added request for peace and good life for us and all Israel. It concludes: “Oseh shalom bi-mromav, Hu (be-raĥamav) ya’aseh shalom aleinu ve-al kol (amo) Yisrael ve-imru: Amen” (“May He Who makes peace in His high places make peace (in His mercy) for us and all of (His nation) Israel – and say: Amen”). Since this Kaddish is usually recited by mourners, it is also called Kaddish Yatom (Mourner’s Kaddish); 3) Kaddish Titkabel is recited by the ĥazan after the conclusion of the Amida. It is identical to Kaddish Shalem but for a single additional line that asks for our prayers be accepted; 4) Kaddish De-rabanan is recited after the study of rabbinic teachings. It too is identical to Kaddish Shalem but with the addition of a prayer that those who study Torah be granted long, good lives.

The Sages ordained the recitation of Kaddish at the conclusion of each section of communal prayer. Kaddish De-rabanan is recited after Korbanot,; Half-Kaddish after Pesukei De-zimra; Half-Kaddish after Taĥanun; On Mondays and Thursdays, an additional Half-Kaddish is recited after Torah reading; Kaddish Titkabal is recited after Kedusha De-sidra; Kaddish Shalem is recited after Shir shel Yom; and Kaddish De-rabanan  is recited after Pitum Ha-ketoret (Shibolei Ha-leket §8). The recitation of Kaddish concludes and elevates each section of the prayer service toward the ultimate objective – God’s honor – so that we may begin the next section.

The general practice is that mourners recite Kaddish Shalem after the recitation of verses from Tanakh and Kaddish De-rabanan after studying rabbinic works, since the departed souls benefits from Kaddish recited for the purpose of its elevation (see below, sections 18-19). When no mourner is present, one who lost a parent recites the Kaddish. If nobody present has lost a parent, the common custom is to refrain from reciting those Kaddishim (Peninei Halakha: Prayer, 23:8 n. 9).

05. Barkhu

Before Birkhot Keri’at Shema, the ĥazan says, “Barkhu et Hashem ha-mevorakh” (“Bless God, the blessed One”), and the congregation responds, “Barukh Hashem ha-mevorakh le-olam va’ed” (“Blessed is God, the blessed one, forever and all time”), and the ĥazan repeats, “Barukh Hashem ha-mevorakh le-olam va’ed” (SA 57:1).

When the ĥazan says “Barkhu,” he bows a bit, and when saying “Hashem” he straightens up. Regarding the congregation, there are different customs. Some customarily bow down completely, others bow slightly, and still others do not bow at all. Everyone should follow family custom. When people with different customs pray together, it is proper for everyone to bow slightly (see Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 17 n. 3).

The primary purpose of Barkhu is to introduce Birkhot Keri’at Shema, for by declaring “Barkhu,” the ĥazan invites the congregation to recite Birkhot Keri’at Shema. Likewise, those called up to the Torah recite Barkhu as an introduction to Birkhot Ha-Torah.

It is customary to repeat Barkhu at the end of the prayer service so that latecomers who missed the first Barkhu have the opportunity to respond to it (see Peninei Halakha: Prayer, 16:3 n. 2; 23:9).

There are different customs of standing when responding to Kaddish and Barkhu. According to the custom of most Sephardim, there is no need to stand while responding to devarim she-bikdusha, though but one who is already standing must remain standing for Kaddish and Barkhu (Maharil, Kaf Ha-ĥayim 56:20; 146:20-21; Yeĥaveh Da’at 3:4). Most Ashkenazim customarily stand while responding to Kaddish and Barkhu (MB 56:7-8; 146:18). However, concerning Barkhu, which requires a short answer, many Ashkenazim have a practice that if they are already sitting, such as during Torah reading or before Ma’ariv, they do not completely stand up. Rather, they rise slightly from their seats while bending their heads forward chairs, this rising and bowing a bit while answering. Many have a similar custom when answering a zimun of ten men, for although it is a davar she-bikdusha for which it is proper to stand according to Ashkenazic custom, since its recitation is short, it is sufficient to slightly rise instead of completely stand.

06. Ĥazarat Ha-shatz

The Men of the Great Assembly ordained that after individuals finish reciting the silent Shemoneh Esrei, the shali’aĥ tzibur (abbreviated to “shatz” an meaning “envoy of the community”; it refers to the ĥazan) repeats the Amida out loud in order to fulfill the obligation on behalf of those who do not know how to pray on their own (RH 34b). This repetition is known as Ĥazarat Ha-shatz. However, for Ma’ariv, they did not institute an Amida repetition since, technically, Ma’ariv is voluntary and consequently there is no need to fulfill the mitzva on behalf of those who are not well-versed in the prayer service.

The Sages ordained that the ĥazan also prays the silent Amida in order to prepare for his repetition. They also instructed that even those who know how to pray on their own listen to Ĥazarat Ha-shatz and answer “amen” after every berakha.

Because Ĥazarat Ha-shatz was ordained by the Sages, it must be recited even where the congregants know how to pray on their own. Even now that it is permissible to put the Oral Torah, including the prayers, in writing, and even now that siddurim are so ubiquitous that it is rare to find a minyan where someone needs Ĥazarat Ha-shatz to fulfill his obligation, the Sages’ enactment remains in force. The principle in play is that once the Sages enact a law, they do not distinguish between individual cases (SA 124:3, based on Responsa Rambam). Moreover, the Sages instituted Kedusha and Birkat Kohanim in Ĥazarat Ha-shatz, and if the Amida is not repeated, they will be abolished altogether (Tur).

Kabbalistic literature explains that in addition to the simple explanation – that it allows the uneducated to fulfill their obligation – there is another, esoteric reason. It is necessary for there to be a silent Amida as well as Ĥazarat Ha-shatz because through both of them together, prayer is most effective. Therefore, even where there is no need to fulfill the obligation on behalf of one who is not well-versed though Ĥazarat Ha-shatz, we must recite it, for the esoteric reason remains. Ĥazarat Ha-shatz is of even greater value than the silent Amida as it is collective and the congregation answers Amen to its berakhot. Hence, although the Amida is intense and sublime, and in order to preserve its exaltedness one recites it silently, the ĥazan recites Ĥazarat Ha-shatz aloud, for due to its even greater value no concern that the kelipot (“husks”; a kabbalistic term for the forces of evil) will take hold of it (see SA 124:7; Kaf Ha-ĥayim 124:2 and 16).

07. Some Laws of Ĥazarat Ha-shatz and Responding “Amen”

Three conditions must be present for an individual to fulfill his obligation by hearing Ĥazarat Ha-shatz: 1) the individual must not be proficient in prayer; one who knows how to pray must pray and beg for mercy on his own. She is unable to fulfill his obligation by hearing the ĥazan; 2) there must be a minyan, because the Sages instituted that individuals may only fulfill their obligation by hearing the ĥazan in the presence of a minyan; 3) the listener must understand the ĥazan’s words; one who does not understand Hebrew is unable to fulfill his obligation with Ĥazarat Ha-shatz.

The audience, even those who prayed individually, must take care to answer “amen” after every berakha of Ĥazarat Ha-shatz, as the Sages teach (Berakhot 53b): ‘One who responds “amen” is greater than the one who recites the blessing.’

One must respond “amen” with the utmost solemnity and have kavana that the content of the berakha is true. For instance, if one hears Ha-Kel Ha-Kadosh, she must have in mind: “It is true that the Lord is the holy God.” When the berakha includes a request, she should also think, “if only the request would be accepted.” For example, one who hears Ĥonen Ha-da’at should have two things in mind: 1) it is true that God grants knowledge; 2) “if only God would grant us knowledge” (SA 124:6; MB 25).

Here is the place to expand a bit on the laws of answering “amen” to the berakhot of Ĥazarat Ha-shatz and to all berakhot in general. “Amen” should be recited in a pleasant tone, and one’s voice should not be raised above that of the person reciting the berakha (SA 124:12). One must not shorten the “amen,” but extend it for the amount of time it takes to say “Kel Melekh Ne’eman,” although it should not be overly extended.

One may not recite “amen” too early, that is, before the berakha is completed; this is called an Amen Ĥatufa. Nor may one shorten the “amen” by slurring its syllables or tailing off before fully articulating it; this is called an Amen Ketufa. Nor may one delay saying “amen” for too long once the berakha has been concluded; this is called an Amen Yetoma (an orphaned Amen) (see Berakhot 47a; SA 124:8).

The way one responds “amen” corresponds to one’s faith in God. Because our lives depend on God, a defect in one’s faith produces a defect in his life. This is the meaning of Ben Azai’s statement: “Whoever responds with an Amen Yetoma – his children will be orphans; an Amen Ĥatufa – his days will be snatched from him; an Amen Ketufa  – his days will be abbreviated. However, if one prolongs the recitation of “amen” – his days and years are lengthened” (Berakhot 47a).

The greatest Rishonim customarily said “barukh Hu u-varukh shemo” (“blessed is He, and blessed is His name”) when God’s name was mentioned in a berakha. This practice became widespread throughout Jewry, but it applies only berakhot that do not constitute the fulfillment of one’s personal obligation, such as Ĥazarat Ha-shatz for one who has already prayed silently. However, berakhot through which one fulfills a personal obligation, such as the berakhot on kiddush and blowing the shofar, the common practice is not to recite “barukh Hu u-varukh shemo,” so as not to interrupt the berakha with words not ordained by the Sages. Nevertheless, be-di’avad, if one responded “barukh Hu u-varukh shemo” in a berakha that she was obligated to recite, she has still fulfilled her obligation, since her response did not distract her from the berakha (MB 124: 21; Kaf Ha-ĥayim 26; some North African communities customarily respond even during berakhot through which one fulfills an obligation, whereas Yemenite custom is never to recite it at all).

08. Kedusha and Modim

Kedusha is recited in the third berakha of Ĥazarat Ha-shatz. The essence of the Kedusha is the congregation’s response with the verses: “Kadosh, kadosh, kadosh, Hashem Tzevakot, melo kol ha-aretz kevodo” (“Holy, holy, holy is the Lord of hosts; the whole world is filled with His glory”; Yeshayahu 6:3), “Barukh kevod Hashem mi-mkomo” (“Blessed be the Lord’s glory from His place”), and “Yimlokh Hashem Le-olam…” (“The Lord shall reign forever…; Tehilim 146:10). The custom today, based on Arizal, is for the congregation to recite the connecting passages as well. The ĥazan then repeats them aloud, and the congregation responds with the verses of the Kedusha (MB 125:2; Kaf Ha-ĥayim 2).

It is best to stand with one’s feet together for Kedusha, since we recite this Kedusha like the angels whose legs are so close together that they resemble one leg (SA 125:2). There are those who beautify the practice by remaining with their legs together until the end of Ha-Kel Ha-Kadosh (Eliya Rabba 125:6); however, this is not an obligation.

It is customary to raise one’s heels slightly and turn one’s closed eyes upward when reciting the words “Kadosh” (all three times), “Barukh,” and “Yimlokh,” thereby expressing the desire to transcend and soar upward (Beit Yosef and Rema 125:2; MB 6; and Kaf Ha-ĥayim 2 and 9, which state that some people keep their eyes open).

When the ĥazan reaches Modim, the whole congregation bows with him and recites Modim De-rabanan, whose nusaĥ differs from that of the Modim in the Amida, as clarified in the Talmud (Sota 40a). This bow must be in accordance with the laws of Modim in the silent Amida (MB 127:2; Kaf Ha-ĥayim 1; see above, 12:5).

09. When is it Permissible to Interrupt in Order to Respond to Matters of Sanctity?

We already learned that it is forbidden to interrupt by speaking in the middle of Pesukei De-zimra and Shema and its berakhot. However, for an urgent matter, such as to prevent damage or insult, it is permissible to interrupt (see above, 16:14; 15:6). Thus, just as one may interrupt for an important matter, so too one may interrupt to respond to devarim she-bikdusha. Therefore, if one is reciting Pesukei De-zimra or Shema and its berakhot and hears Kaddish, Barkhu, Kedusha, or Modim may answer. However, she is not obligated to stop and respond, as one who is reciting Pesukei De-zimra is already occupied with devarim she-bikdusha, and there is no affront to God’s honor if she continues her prayer. However, if she is surrounded by women who are responding to Kedusha and Modim, it is proper that she stop and answer together with them, because those responses are accompanied by an act (standing with feet together and bowing), and if she would continue sitting, she would appear to be separating herself from the congregation. Once she must interrupt her prayer to stand or bow with them, it is preferable that she answer with them.

The permissibility of interrupting one’s prayer to respond to Kaddish applies only to the central part of Kaddish (that which is recited in the Half-Kaddish). She does not respond to the later additions, for they are not the essence of Kaddish. Likewise, clearly one must not interrupt to respond “Barukh Hu u-varukh shemo,” as this response is mere custom.

Regarding answering “amen” to berakhot, such as the berakhot of Ĥazarat Ha-shatz: While reciting Pesukei De-zimra one may answer, but not while reciting Shema and its berakhot (see Peninei Halakha: Prayer, 14:4 n. 7; 16:5 n. 4). ¹

10. Places where it is Forbidden to Interrupt

In cases where one may respond in the middle of Birkhot Keri’at Shema, she may only respond while reciting the main part of it, from the beginning until just before the conclusion. However, once one says “Barukh Atta Hashem” at the conclusion, she may not interrupt at all, for such an interruption truncates the berakha (BHL 66:3).

Similarly, when reciting the verses “Shema Yisrael…” and “Barukh Shem kevod…,” in which one accepts the yoke of heaven, one may not interrupt for anything, for they have the same status as the Amida, in which we do not interrupt at all (SA 66:1).

In any case of uncertainty in the middle of Birkhot Keri’at Shema or Pesukei De-zimra, it is best not to respond, for according to many poskim, even if it is permissible to respond, there is no obligation to do so (Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 16 n. 4).

In the middle of the Amida it is forbidden to respond to any davar she-bikdusha, including Kaddish and Kedusha. However, one may remain silent and be attentive to the ĥazan’s Kaddish and Kedusha, for listening with kavana is considered like actually responding. However if interrupting the Amida to listen to ĥazan disturbs her kavana, it is better that she continue her silent Amida (Peninei Halakha: Prayer 17:15).

On weekdays, one must not interrupt between Ga’al Yisrael and the Amida for any davar she-bikdusha, for adjoining redemption to prayer helps save people from distress. However, on Shabbat, which is not considered a day of distress, there is less of a necessity to adjoin redemption to prayer, and according to most poskim one may interrupt to respond to devarim she-bikdusha. On festivals, which are days of judgment (on Sukkot, we are judged regarding water, on Pesaĥ regarding the harvest, and on Shavuot regarding tree fruits – see RH 16a), one may not interrupt between redemption and prayer (SA 66:9; Rema 111:1; Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 16 n. 7).

11. Birkat Kohanim

There is a positive biblical commandment for kohanim to bless the nation of Israel, as it is written: “God spoke to Moshe, saying: Speak to Aharon and his sons, saying: This is how you shall bless the Israelites. Say to them: May the Lord bless you and guard you. May the Lord make His face shine on you and be gracious to you. May the Lord turn His face toward you and grant you peace” (Bamidbar 6:22-26).

In this blessing, called Birkat Kohanim, we learn to notice the basic fact that God is the bestower of blessing upon us, and our daily receptivity to Birkat Kohanim implants this faith in our hearts (Moreh Nevukhim 3:44; Ha-akeida §74). The blessing bestowed on us by God is linked to our own efforts, or, in kabbalistic terminology, to the “awakening” of the nether worlds (“itaruta de-letata”), which in turn causes the awakening of the upper realms (“itaruta de-le’eila”). By fulfilling the mitzva of Birkat Kohanim, God’s desire to bestow blessing upon Israel is awakened.

During Temple times, Birkat Kohanim would take place after the daily sacrificial offerings were completed. The Torah recounts that on the eighth day of the Mishkan’s dedication, the day that the kohanim were inaugurated in their service: “Aharon lifted his hands toward the people and blessed them. He then descended from [the altar where he] had prepared sin offering, burnt offering, and peace offering” (Vayikra 9:22). It is from here that we derive that Birkat Kohanim (also called “Nesi’at Kapayim” – “the lifting of the hands” – after this verse) took place at the conclusion of the sacrificial offerings. The reason for this is that after offering the sacrifices, which express our willingness to surrender and sacrifice ourselves for God, we are worthy of receiving His blessing.

Outside of the Temple, the Sages ordained that Birkat Kohanim is recited at the time of prayer, since prayer corresponds to offerings and is designed for the same purpose: coming closer to God. Thus, just as Birkat Kohanim takes place after the korbanot, so too it was instituted toward the end of Ĥazarat Ha-shatz of  Shemoneh.

12. Some Laws of Birkat Kohanim

Birkat Kohanim must be recited aloud and in Hebrew. The kohanim must stand and lift their hands toward the congregation. A kohen who cannot meet these conditions may not perform Birkat Kohanim (SA 128:14; Peninei Halakha: Prayer 20:4).

Before the kohanim lift their hands, they must wash them. There is an allusion to this in the verse: “Lift up your hands in holiness and bless God” (Tehilim 134:2). Any kohen who did not wash his hands may not bless the congregation (Sota 39a).

1. Yoĥanan b. Zakai enacted that kohanim not perform Birkat Kohanim while wearing sandals or shoes (as explained in Peninei Halakha: Prayer 20:8).

This is the protocol of Birkat Kohanim: The ĥazan or the gabbai declares “kohanim,” but if only one kohen goes up before the ark, “kohanim” is not declared. This is derived from the verse “Say to them” (Bamidbar 6:23), which is in the plural and indicates that the word “kohanim” is only declared when there are at least two kohanim present (SA 128:10). Birkat Kohanim is not recited by the kohanim on their own. Rather, the ĥazan recites each word and the kohanim repeat after him. At the completion of each verse, the congregation answers “amen.”

13. The Audience of Birkat Kohanim

Sefer Ĥaredim (12:18) states that not only the kohanim fulfill a mitzva by blessing the congregation, but the Jews who stand before them in intent silence and respond “amen” also participate in the fulfillment of this biblical commandment.

When the kohanim perform Birkat Kohanim, the congregation must stand in front of them, as it is written: “This is how you shall bless the Israelites. Say to them” (Bamidbar 6:23). The Sages interpret this to mean that Birkat Kohanim must be performed in the same way that people talk to their friends – by standing face to face and speaking aloud so that all those receiving the blessing can hear them. Although technically the audience may sit, it has become customary that all stand for Birkat Kohanim. Still, an ill or weak person who has difficulty standing may sit (MB 128:51; Tzitz Eliezer 14:18).

One who cannot come to the synagogue due to matters out of his control – for instance, one who must go to work – is still included in the berakha. Similarly, women and children who are not required to come to the synagogue are included in the berakha. Only men who can go to the synagogue but neglect to do so are excluded from the berakha.

One who comes to the synagogue but stands behind the kohanim during Birkat Kohanim is not included in the berakha. If he is standing directly alongside them, he must turn toward them to be included in the berakha. Those sitting in the first pews of the synagogue must measure where they are in relation to the kohanim. If they are in front of them or even directly to the side of them, they may remain in place and turn toward the kohanim. However, if they are slightly behind the kohanim, they must move elsewhere for Birkat Kohanim. The same ruling applies to women in the women’s section at the sides of the synagogue (SA 128:24).

Anyone standing in the synagogue facing the kohanim is included in the berakha. Even if there are taller people or pillars in front blocking the kohanim from view, she is indeed included in the berakha since she is on the side that faces the kohanim. However, one who turns her back to the kohanim is not included.

If one is in the middle of the Amida when the kohanim start to bless, she waits a bit and listens to Birkat Kohanim, which is a biblical commandment, and then she continues praying. However, she must take care not to answer “amen” to Birkat Kohanim, so as not to interrupt her Amida (Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 20 n. 2).

14. Those Eligible and Ineligible to Perform Birkat Kohanim

The kohanim were commanded to perform Birkat Kohanim, but the blessing itself comes from God and does not depend on the righteousness of the kohanim. Therefore, even a kohen eats forbidden foods, has forbidden sexual relations, or commits other sins must perform Birkat Kohanim. If he does not perform it, he compounds his sin, as Rambam writes: “Do not tell an evil person, ‘Do more evil and refrain from performing mitzvot’” (MT, Laws of Prayer 15:6).

However, a kohen who has committed sins that mar his priestly status, such as marrying a divorcee or becoming contaminated by a corpse, is penalized by the Sages and forbidden him to perform Birkat Kohanim. Likewise, a kohen who worshipped idols or publicly desecrated Shabbat out of spite is deemed ineligible to perform Birkat Kohanim. However, if the kohanim who committed these sins repent completely, they may resume their priestly duties and perform the berakha (SA 128:37, 40-41; Peninei Halakha: Prayer 20:10).

A kohen who has killed may not perform Birkat Kohanim, as it is written: “When you spread your hands, I will turn My eyes away from you… your hands are full of blood” (Yeshayahu 1:15; Berakhot 32b). The kohen’s job is to increase kindness and life, like Aharon, who loved and pursued peace. A kohen who has killed has damaged the core of his priesthood. Thus, a kohen who unintentionally ran someone over with his car may not perform Birkat Kohanim. The poskim disagree about whether he may repent by fasting, tzedaka, and resolving not to sin again would enable him to once again perform Birkat Kohanim. In practice, a kohen who undergoes such a terrible experience must go to his rabbi to receive personal instruction about what to do (Peninei Halakha: Prayer 20:11).

15. The Institution of Torah Reading

There is an ancient enactment, from the time of Moshe, that the Torah is read in public on Shabbat day, Monday, and Thursdays from a scroll written with ink on parchment, so that three days never pass without the study of Torah. The Sages teach that this enactment was instituted based on the verse, “They traveled for three days in the desert without finding any water” (Shemot 15:22). Moshe and his disciples, the elders and the prophets, understood that the thirst for water was a result of three consecutive days in which Israel did not engage publicly in Torah (BK 82a). Torah is likened to water, for just as water sustains all animal and plant life, so too Torah sustains the soul. When the people disconnected themselves from the Torah even slightly, water sources also ceased to flow. Although the Torah scholars of that generation presumably studied Torah during those three days, the meaning here is that for three days the people of Israel did not engage in Torah publicly. Therefore, it was established that the Torah would be read every Monday, Thursday, and Shabbat, so that never again will more than three days pass without Israel publicly reading from the Torah.

Ezra the Scribe further instituted that the Torah be read at Minĥa on Shabbat because of  “yoshvei keranot” (BK 82a). Some say that yoshvei keranot are merchants and craftsmen who are unable to hear the reading on Mondays and Thursdays, and so the Shabbat Minĥa reading was added as a make-up opportunity for them. Others maintain that yoshvei keranot are frivolous individuals. There was concern that after they finish Shaĥarit on Shabbat they would turn to drink and idleness, and so Torah reading was instituted at Minĥa (see Peninei Halakha: Shabbat 5:8). The Sages further enacted that relevant Torah portions are read on all festivals and Rosh Ĥodesh.

On Mondays and Thursdays three people are called up (“olim”) to the Torah; four on Rosh Ĥodesh and Ĥol Ha-mo’ed; five on Yom Tov; six on Yom Kippur; and seven on Shabbat (Megilla 21a). Initially, it was customary that each person called up to the Torah would read that section, but as time went on, most congregations designated a Torah reader (ba’al koreh) who would read the Torah for everyone. This is so those who do not know how to read the Torah are not insulted and so the reading itself is especially accurate (Peninei Halakha: Collected Essays I 4:6; II p. 227)

Technically, it is permissible to add aliyot on Shabbat and call up more than seven people to the Torah, as long as each person called up for an aliya reads at least three verses. However, for several reasons, it is preferable not to add aliyot. Only when there is a pressing need, such as for a joyous occasion with celebrants who will be insulted if they are not called up, may aliyot be added to the standard seven (SA 282:1-2; MB 4-5; see Peninei Halakha: Shabbat 5:6).

The reading must be done from a kosher scroll, written with the proper intent, in ink, on parchment, just as the first Torah scroll was written by Moshe at God’s dictate. The reading must be in the presence of a minyan, as it is davar she-bikdusha (see above, 2:10, which states that women are exempt from Torah reading, and below, 22:4-6, regarding Torah reading on Shabbat. See also Peninei Halakha: Collected Essays I ch. 4 and Prayer ch. 22).

16. The Ĥazan

The ĥazan leads the prayer service. At times, the whole congregation says the prayers together with him while he sets the pace, and at other times (such as Ĥazarat Ha-shatz and Kaddish), he alone recites the prayers, with the congregation responding “amen.” The ĥazan must be honest, well-regarded, modest, and amiable, have a nice voice, and regularly read from the Torah, Prophets, and Holy Scripture (Ta’anit 16a; SA 53:4). We are especially strict about this on the Days of Awe and on fast days, when we pray to God and beg Him to forgive us for our sins, save us from our troubles, and bring our redemption closer. If there is flaw in the ĥazan, the congregation’s prayer will not ascend properly (Rema 581:1).

During the time of the Sages, it was forbidden to write siddurim because only the written Torah, meaning Tanakh, was permitted to be written. Anything that was transmitted orally, including the prayers and blessings instituted by the Sages, was forbidden to be put into writing (Temura 14b). At that time, the ĥazan’s task was very important, because he had to know all the prayers by heart and recite them aloud, for the audience fulfilled their obligations through him. Therefore, the congregation chose a permanent ĥazan for this honorable task, and all the particular laws that apply to appointing the ĥazan on fast days also pertained to the regular ĥazan. Originally, each and every member of the congregation would have to agree to the appointment of the ĥazan, since the ĥazan was the one who fulfilled the obligation on everyone’s behalf. However, after the destruction of the Second Temple, the Sages recognized the necessity of permitting the writing of the Oral Torah so that it would not be forgotten by the Jewish people. Included in that was the permission to write down the prayers. With time, siddurim became increasingly common, and today there is no need for the ĥazan to fulfill the obligation on the congregation’s behalf because all congregants pray with siddurim. Hence, there is less of a need to be meticulous in choosing a ĥazan, and it is not customary to select a permanent ĥazan for the whole year. Instead, each day a different person leads the prayer service (SA 53:19; MB 53:53).

Even so, the gabba’im, must try to choose as ĥazanim decent people who abide by the Torah and observe the mitzvot. They should be people who the congregation agrees to appoint as its emissaries, for the ĥazanim are the ones who repeat the Amida and recite  Kaddish on its behalf (see Kaf Ha-ĥayim 53:86). Additionally, on Shabbat and festivals, when it is customary for ĥazanim to sing and chant part of the service, the appointed ĥazanim should be musically gifted with pleasant voices.

17. Ĥazanut for the Sake of Heaven

Ĥazanim must have kavana that their singing is the sake of heaven. If they prolong their ĥazanut (cantorial virtuosity) with the sole purpose of showing off their beautiful voices, the Torah states about them, “They have raised their voice against Me, so I hated them” (Yirmiyahu 12:8). They are using the holy prayer service to self-aggrandize. Even one whose sole intent is for the sake of heaven should not prolong his singing, so as not to burden the congregation (Rashba; SA 53:11).

Ĥazanim may not repeat the words of berakhot and Kaddish because doing so changes the formula that the Sages established. If repeating the words alters the meaning of the berakha, those words are considered a hefsek, and the ĥazan must recite the berakha again from the beginning. However, if there is no change in the meaning, be-di’avad he does not need to recite the berakha again, because he did not interrupt its recitation with an extraneous matter (see Igrot Moshe OĤ 2:22; Yabi’a Omer 6:7).

The poskim disagree about whether one may use melodies of profane songs for prayers and liturgy. In practice, when the congregation is not familiar with the crude lyrics of the song, it is customary to be lenient and fit the melody to the prayer. However, if the congregation recognizes the song, one may not use that tune for prayer, because when the people sing it, they remember the crude theme of the song and their kavana is likely to be disrupted (Peninei Halakha: Prayer, ch. 4 n. 1). It is forbidden to appoint a singer who normally sings songs with vulgar content to be ĥazan (Rema 53:25).

It is not fitting for one to desire to be ĥazan. Therefore, when the gabbai asks someone in the congregation to lead the service, proper protocol is do refuse at first, though he should not decline excessively (see SA 53:16; Peninei Halakha: Prayer 4:3). If one is capable of leading the prayers but refuses, he indeed insults the honor of the prayer service as well as God’s honor. In particular, one who God endowed with a talent for singing and a pleasant voice should not decline on Shabbat and festivals, since the prayers on those days are rich with song and melody. If he refuses to pray out of stubbornness or laziness, and does not praise God with his voice, it would have been better had he not come into this world (Sefer Ĥasidim 768). The Sages say about Navot of Jezreel that he had an exceptionally pleasant voice and would ascend to the Temple in Jerusalem for the three pilgrimage festivals, where all Israel would gather to hear him. The one time he stayed home to guard his vineyard, he was punished; lawless people testified that he rebelled against the king and he was put to death (Pesikta Rabbati §25).

18. The Mourner’s Prayer and the Recitation of the Mourner’s Kaddish

One who is mourning a parent recites Kaddish during that first year after the death, and it helps save the deceased from harsh judgment; since the deceased left progeny who sanctify God’s name in the world, clearly the deceased’s life was of enduring value. If a son knows how to lead the services and the congregation agrees to his appointment, it is best for him to be the ĥazan on weekdays, since this benefits the deceased even more. It is also customary for mourners to say Kaddish and lead the prayers on the day of yahrtzeit. When there are several mourners in the synagogue, it is customary that everyone recites Kaddish together. Concerning leading the prayer service, there is an order of precedence; for example, someone who is in his first thirty days of mourning takes priority over one who is in his year of mourning (as explained in Peninei Halakha: Prayer 4:5-7).

A minor whose mother or father died says Kaddish even though he is not yet a bar mitzva. It is for this purpose that Kaddish Yatom was instituted. It is preferable for an adult to lead the prayers and thereby benefit the deceased’s soul, but for a minor who cannot be ĥazan, the Sages instituted Kaddish (Rema YD 376:4). Even if the minor has not yet reached the age of education, the Kaddish is dictated to him, the young orphan repeats the Kaddish word for word, and the congregation answers “amen.”

It is proper to recite Kaddish on behalf of adoptive parents, especially if they do not have another son (Yalkut Yosef 7:23:13). A convert should recite Kaddish on behalf of his gentile parents (Responsa Zekan Aharon YD 87).

19. When there is No Adult Son to Recite Kaddish

If one was not privileged to leave behind a son or whose son is not God-fearing and does not come to the synagogue to recite Kaddish for them, a God-fearing grandson may say Kaddish for the whole year. A grandson from a son takes precedence over a grandson from a daughter. If the deceased does not have a grandson yet, but has a son-in-law, the son-in-law should say Kaddish. The grandson and son-in-law may recite Kaddish for their grandparent or parent in-law only after receiving permission from their own parents if they are still living. If the deceased does not have a son-in-law, the father recites Kaddish for his child. If his father is also dead, a brother or nephew says Kaddish.

When there is no relative to recite Kaddish for the deceased, part of the inheritance money should be used to hire a God-fearing person to recite Kaddish. It is good to hire someone who is engrossed in Torah. If someone in the family who is engrossed in Torah, he takes precedence over a stranger. Monetary compensation for reciting Kaddish is important to ensure its recitation. Furthermore, if they employ someone who is involved in Torah or a poor person who has children to support, the deceased will thereby accrue more merit.

The common ruling nowadays is that a man should be hired to recite Kaddish even if the deceased left a daughter. ¹

01. The Mitzva to Build a Synagogue

Wherever ten Jews live, they have a mitzva to designate a place for their prayers. It becomes a small sanctuary (mikdash me’at) and is called a beit knesset (synagogue) (MT, Laws of Prayer 11:1).

It is important to note that a synagogue is not just a place that facilitates prayer with a minyan; rather, it has independent value as a place designated for devarim she-bikdusha, a place where the Shekhina dwells. It is a great mitzva to build a synagogue, as the Torah states: “They shall make Me a sanctuary and I will live among them” (Shemot 25:8). Although this verse primarily comes to teach us about the building of the Temple, an offshoot of that mitzva is the mitzva to build a synagogue (see Peninei Halakha: Collected Essays I, ch. 1 n. 1). This is what the prophet Yeĥezkel meant by “I have been for them a small sanctuary” (Yeĥezkel 11:16), as R. Yitzĥak interpreted, “These are the synagogues and batei midrash (study halls)” (Megilla 29a).

Especially after the destruction of our Temple and our exile from our land – and the exile of the Shekhina along with us – as a result of which we are unable to ascend and appear before the Lord, our God, the synagogues and study halls serve as places in which we can preserve the memory of the Shekhina’s manifestation at the Temple. Likewise, the prayers recited in the synagogue were instituted to correspond to the sacrificial offerings brought at the Temple. Hence, synagogues are constructed for two purposes: to facilitate organized prayer, and to serve as a miniature Temple, a commemoration and extension of the Temple’s sanctity (see Peninei Halakha: Collected Essays I, ch. 6 concerning the laws of the synagogue; here we outline the laws that pertain to women).

Since the idea of the synagogue is so important, all members of the community must participate in the funding of its construction. If there are Jews who are not interested in participating in payments for building the synagogue, the leaders of the community may compel them to contribute its funding (SA 150:1, which states that it was customary to divide the payment according to wealth, though some divided the burden on a per capita basis).

It seems to me that the mitzva to build a synagogue applies to women as well, and it is good that she share in the payments for its construction. Even though women need not pray in the synagogue, they are nevertheless considered members of the community, and thus the mitzva to build a “small sanctuary” for the community applies to them as well. Additionally, it is worth noting that the Israelite women donated their jewelry to the Mishkan. Furthermore, women do come to pray in the synagogue sometimes; as we learned (above, 20:2), there is merit and value in a woman praying in a synagogue. Nonetheless, if a woman does not want to help financially support the building of the synagogue, it seems that she cannot be compelled to do so, since she is not obligated to pray in it.

02. Choosing a Synagogue

It is a mitzva to designate a fixed place for prayer. It is even a mitzva for a woman who only comes to the synagogue on Shabbat and festivals to choose a regular synagogue. If possible, she should have a fixed place in the synagogue (see Peninei Halakha: Prayer 3:2).

When one has several synagogues to choose from, she should choose one in accordance with the guidelines provided by the Sages. A beit midrash (study hall) is holier than a synagogue (SA 90:18). Similarly, a synagogue that offers more Torah classes is considered preferable to one with fewer classes. In addition, it is better to join the congregation that places greater emphasis on Torah study.

If there are two synagogues which offer an equal number of Torah classes, the one with a greater number of congregants is preferable, for “Be-rov am hadrat Melekh” (“In a multitude of people is a King’s glory”; MB 90:55). However, if it is difficult to hear the ĥazan clearly in the larger synagogue, it is better to choose a synagogue in which one can properly hear the ĥazan (MB 90:20). Therefore, as a general rule, it is best that synagogues be as big as possible, for this increases God’s glory. Still, there is a limit; more than a few hundred congregants makes it impossible to hear the ĥazan clearly.

If in one synagogue people regularly chatter during prayer and in another they do not, one should opt for the synagogue that shows more respect for prayer, for he will be able to concentrate better there (Sefer Ĥasidim §770).

Most importantly, the essence of prayer is kavana. Therefore, above all other rules established by the Sages, the place in which one personally concentrates better is the appropriate place to choose (see Radbaz 3:472).

Similarly, one should preferably pick a synagogue that uses the liturgical rite of her ancestors. However, if she knows for certain that she will have more kavana in a different synagogue, she should prefer that synagogue (see below, 24:5).

If a man prefers one synagogue and his wife prefers another, and each synagogue prays at a different time, the wife should follow her husband, for he is more regularly in the synagogue, since he is commanded to pray there. Moreover, in all matters concerning customs and halakhot, the wife follows her husband, as explained below (24:4).

With every step a woman takes in her walk to the synagogue, she is rewarded. Therefore, even if the preferred synagogue is farther away from her house, she should not be deterred by the effort of walking, for she is credited for each step. This matter was in fact taught to us by a woman, as we have learned (above, 20:2; Sota 22a).

03. The Sanctity of the Synagogue

It is a mitzva to act with reverence in a synagogue, for the Torah says: “Revere My  temple” (Vayikra 19:30), and the sanctity of the synagogue is a reflection of the sanctity of the Temple.

Whoever uses the synagogue for non-holy everyday purposes dishonors its holiness, since the synagogue was designated solely for sacred matters: Torah, prayer, and strengthening other mitzvot. Therefore, one should not discuss business and finances there, and certainly one should not joke or gossip there. However, it is permitted to hold assemblies for the sake of a mitzva, such as to collect charity for the poor or to raise funds for yeshivot.

It is a mitzva to honor the synagogue and maintain its cleanliness at all times. One who has mud on his shoes must remove it before entering the synagogue (SA 151:6-9).

One must not enter a synagogue unless it is for Torah or prayer. Even when it is raining outside, one may not take shelter in a synagogue. Likewise, one may not enter a synagogue in the summer to take refuge from the heat. However, if one intends to learn or pray in the synagogue while taking shelter, she may enter.

One who must enter the synagogue to get his friend’s attention regarding an urgent matter may do so; however, before doing so, he should sit a bit and recite a verse, so as not to enter solely for personal needs (Megilla 28a; SA 151:1).

In a synagogue that does not normally accommodate se’udot mitzva (festive meals celebrating the fulfillment of a mitzva), it is preferable le-khatĥila to follow the stringent opinion of Magen Avraham and not hold large se’udot mitzva at which wine is served, like those of a brit mila, pidyon ha-ben, bar-mitzva, or sheva berakhot. However, serving light refreshments there at the celebration of a joyous occasion, such as a siyum (celebration of the completion of a talmudic tractate) and the like, is permissible. If it was customary to hold se’udot mitzva in the synagogue from its inception, then all agree that it is permissible to do so. This, of course, is all on condition that the congregants are extremely careful to preserve the sanctity of the synagogue, that they refrain from all idle talk and frivolity, and that they make certain not to become intoxicated. They must also ensure that women and men do not mingle in the synagogue. Those who wish to follow the lenient position may conduct se’udot mitzva even in a synagogue that did not initially host such events, for that is the opinion of many poskim (see Peninei Halakha: Collected Essays I, 6:8; for further study, read that entire chapter).

04. One May Not Bring to Synagogue Children Who Are Likely to Disrupt

It is forbidden for one praying to seat a baby in front of her, as there is concern that the baby will disturb her kavana (MB 96:4). Certainly during prayer times one may not bring babies and small children who do not know how to pray, since they are likely to distract the people praying.

If one brings a child to prayer services and the child begins to disrupt the congregation’s prayers, he must take the child out of the synagogue, even if it means he must interrupt his Amida, and continue praying outside. This applies to women in the women’s section as well (see above, 14:2).

Although there is a pious custom to bring babies to the synagogue so that they can absorb its holy atmosphere, the custom applies specifically to times when prayer services are not being held. In order to emphasize the importance of this matter, I will cite Shlah, which states in the name of Orĥot Ĥayim:

Children’s chatter in synagogue is a severe prohibition. Nowadays young children come to the synagogue to bring punishment upon those who bring them there, for they come to desecrate the sanctity of our God’s house and to laugh in it as they do in city streets. They get up to play with one another; this one plays with that one and that one hits the other. One rejoices, another cries. One talks, another shouts. One runs here, the other, there. One relieves himself in the synagogue and everyone screams, ‘Water, water!’ Another one is given a book by his father, which he throws on the floor or tears it into twelve pieces. Ultimately, the noise of their shenanigans destroys the kavana of the worshippers and causes the desecration of God’s name. One who brings children to synagogue in this way should not expect reward, but punishment. The worst thing is that these children will be raised on this bad custom and foreign habit. As they grow older, they will increase their contempt for the synagogue and its sanctity and they will show no respect for the Torah, since once one becomes habituated to a sin, it becomes permitted to him, and even as he ages, he will not abandon it. In conclusion, it is proper for one not to bring very small children to synagogue, because he will [only] lose from it and not gain. However, when the child reaches the age of education, on the contrary; the father should bring the child to synagogue, teach him to sit in awe and reverence, not let him move from his seat, and encourage him to answer “amen” and respond to Kaddish and Kedusha (Shlah, Masekhet Tamid Ner Mitzva, brought by MB 98:3).

05. Women and Tzitzit

Women are exempt from the mitzva of tzitzit, a time-bound positive mitzva that applies only during the day, not at night (Menaĥot 43a; SA 17:2; above, 2:7). Women who want to wrap themselves in a talit may do so privately. According to Ashkenazic practice, they would recite a berakha, and according to Sephardic practice, they would not. ¹

06. Women and Tefilin

Women are exempt from the mitzva of tefilin, as it is a time-bound positive mitzva that applies only on weekdays, not on Shabbat or festivals, when it is forbidden (above, 2:7).

When it comes to other time-bound positive mitzvot, like lulav and shofar, many women indeed fulfill them, since the law is that women are credited with the mitzva if they voluntarily fulfill them despite their exemption. Nevertheless, when it comes to tefilin, the common practice is that they do not wear them. The reason for this is that Jewish custom is very concerned for the honor of the tefilin. Even though technically men should wear tefilin all day, they only wear them in the morning, and only to fulfill their obligation, because there is concern that they will have lapses in concentration while wearing tefilin (which is forbidden) and thereby disrespect the tefilin. Similarly, women, who are not obligated to wear tefilin at all, should not put themselves in a situation that would raise concerns for disrespecting the tefilin. For this reason, the custom is that women do not put on tefilin (MA, AHS).

Therefore, a woman who wants to elevate herself through mitzvot and asks whether she should wear tefilin should be instructed not to do so. If she nevertheless yearns to wear them in private, even though numerous authorities wrote that this is objectionable, one should not object, because there are opinions upon which she may rely. In general, whenever a practice has an authority on which to rely, one should not object to it.

There are women who are not meticulous about the laws of tzni’ut and many other mitzvot, but they wish to boast by wearing talit and tefilin. One should object to their agenda of turning the Torah and mitzvot into a site of social conflicts, as mitzvot should be performed for God’s sake, not as a tool to advance interests of one sort or another. ¹.” It is also said of several righteous women from early and later generations – including the wife of R. Ĥayim ibn Atar – that they wore tefilin.

The practical ruling is that a woman should not wear tefilin, and many authorities – including Rema, Kaf Ha-ĥayim, MB, and many others – state that objections should be raised against women who wish to wear tefilin. Nevertheless, a woman who wishes to wear tefilin has authorities to rely upon – Orĥot Ĥayim and Olat Tamid – and AHS also concludes that one should not object to one who is renowned as a righteous woman. Therefore, in practice, one should not object to this practice. However, a woman who wear tefilin should take care not to wear them while menstruating (though she may wear tefilin while counting her clean days) and should make sure to wear them in private, so that it is clear that she is wearing them for God’s sake and so that she does not advertise when she is menstruating.]

01. The Shabbat Amida

The laws of prayer and kiddush on Shabbat are numerous, so we will cover only those that pertain specifically to women.

The Shabbat Amida is comprised of seven berakhot. The first three and last three berakhot are identical to the corresponding berakhot in weekday Amida; however, instead of the thirteen middle berakhot, on Shabbat a special berakha about the sanctity of the Shabbat is recited.

Although it would have been possible to recite all the weekday berakhot of the Amida on Shabbat in addition to a special berakha in honor of the day, the Sages did not want to trouble people with lengthy prayer, so they shortened the Amida by replacing the middle thirteen berakhot with just one berakha. However, if one mistakenly began to recite the weekday berakhot and realizes in the middle of one of the blessings that it is Shabbat, she concludes that berakha and only then returns to the Shabbat liturgy; since in principal it would be acceptable to recite the weekday berakhot, once she already began reciting the berakha, it is proper that she finishes it (SA 268:2). ¹

The Sages instituted a special berakha for each Amida of Shabbat: Atta Kidashta for Ma’ariv, Yismaĥ Moshe for Shaĥarit, and Atta Eĥad for Minĥa. One who accidentally mixes up one berakha with another, for example by reciting the Minĥa liturgy at Ma’ariv, still fulfills her obligation, because they all address the sanctity of Shabbat. However, if he mistakenly prays a weekday Amida instead of the Shabbat Amida, since she does not mention Shabbat, she does not fulfill her obligation and must pray again. If she realizes her error before finishing the Amida, she returns to the Shabbat berakha and continues from there to the end of the Amida (SA 268:5-6).

02. Kabbalat Shabbat

Over 400 years ago, the kabbalists of Tzefat began accepting Shabbat by reciting psalms and liturgical poems. Because the Jewish people wished to give expression to the neshama yeteira (the extra soul that one receives when observing Shabbat), this custom was accepted by all Israel and became Kabbalat Shabbat. At that time lived R. Shlomo Alkabetz, who composed the wonderful poem Lekha Dodi that is used to welcome the Shabbat in all synagogues.

It was Arizal’s custom to welcome the Shabbat in a field, facing west toward the setting sun (the Sages say [BB 25a] that the Shekhina is manifest primarily in the west). This custom was accepted in most synagogues; when reciting the last stanza of Lekha Dodi, in which Shabbat is welcomed like a bride, the congregation faces west. Accordingly, even when the entrance to the synagogue faced a different direction, the congregation faces west. Some have the custom to face the entrance to the synagogue, even if it is not to the west, as an expression of the idea that Shabbat is a guest that enters through the door (some Sephardic communities face west throughout the recitation of Mizmor Le-David and Lekha Dodi).

In many synagogues, Friday night services begin relatively late, and the congregation reaches Lekha Dodi after sunset. In order to fulfill the mitzva of tosefet Shabbat (adding on to Shabbat), they must accept Shabbat before sunset by saying “Bo’i kalla Shabbat ha-malka” (“Come, o bride, o Shabbat queen”). Thus, it is best if after Minĥa, before sunset, the gabbai makes this declaration.

Women generally accept Shabbat at candle lighting, thereby fulfilling tosefet Shabbat in an outstanding manner. A woman who regularly prays Minĥa should make every effort to pray Minĥa on Friday before candle lighting, for in the opinion of many poskim, after she accepts Shabbat by lighting the candles, she is unable to pray a weekday Minĥa (MB 263:43). Be-di’avad, if she did pray Minĥa before she lit the candles, she may rely on the lenient opinion. The lenient poskim maintain that even though she accepted Shabbat and is forbidden from doing melakha (labors forbidden on Shabbat), still, she may still pray a weekday Amida (Tzitz Eliezer 13:42; also see Peninei Halakha: Shabbat, ch. 2 n. 6).

03. Va-yekhulu and Magen Avot

In the Amida on Shabbat night we recite Va-yekhulu, the three verses at the end of account of creation (Bereishit 2:1-3) that introduce the idea of Shabbat. The Sages teach (Shabbat 119b) that one who recites Va-yekhulu in the Shabbat evening prayers becomes like a partner with God in creation. God purposely created the world incomplete so that we could become His partners in its repair. Our partnership begins with belief in the Creator, and from there we work to rectify the world and express His glory.

The Sages further teach that one who recites Va-yekhulu in the Shabbat evening prayers is escorted home by two angels, who place their hands on his head and say: “Your iniquity will be removed and your sin will be atoned.” The idea of Shabbat is linked to repentance (teshuva), as attested by their phonetic similarity. Indeed, on Shabbat we are reminded of our faith in the Creator, and from that conviction we return (“shavim”) to all the good aspirations in our souls. One who recites Va-yekhulu on Shabbat eve expresses the profound significance of Shabbat and earns the opportunity for true repentance and atonement for his transgressions.

In the synagogue, the congregation recites Va-yekhulu again after the Amida. Some say that the public recitation of Va-yekhulu serves as testimony to the creation of the world (see Peninei Halakha: Shabbat 4:3). We say Va-yekhulu a third time in kiddush; often, important prayers are recited three times (as in Ashrei and Kedusha).

The Sages instituted that the ĥazan recites Magen Avot or the Berakha Me’ein Sheva (a summary of the seven berakhot of the Friday night Amida) after Ma’ariv, to serve as a sort of Ĥazarat Ha-shatz (see Peninei Halakha: Shabbat 4:2 for further study). This berakha is recited by the ĥazan, so after the congregation sings its opening passage Magen Avot, the ĥazan must repeat it by himself (MB 268:22).

04. Pesukei De-zimra, Torah Reading, and Musaf

Since the time of the Rishonim it has been customary to add psalms to Pesukei De-zimra on Shabbat morning. The added psalms have either creation or the giving of the Torah as their theme, for Shabbat commemorates the creation of the world and the Torah was given on Shabbat. Before Yishtabaĥ, we add Nishmat Kol Ĥai – a prayer of wondrous praise that mentions the Exodus and thus links to Shabbat, which commemorates the Exodus (Tur §281; Levush; see Peninei Halakha: Shabbat 4:4).

After Shaĥarit we read from the Torah and recite a haftara from the works of the Prophets. We already learned about Torah reading (20:15), and, as noted, on Shabbat there are seven aliyot. Here we will add that the purpose of the reading on Shabbat is to complete the entire Torah. During the time of the Talmud, it was customary in Eretz Yisrael to complete the Torah every three years while in Babylonia it was customary to complete the Torah annually, as is the custom today. If on one Shabbat the Torah portion was not read, two portions are read on the following Shabbat so as to make up for the missed portion (SA 135:2).

Following the reading of the Torah and the haftara, Musaf is recited. It corresponds to the additional offerings that we were commanded to bring to sanctify Shabbat. We similarly recite Musaf on every holiday that we are commanded to sanctify through additional offerings (see below, section 6).

05. Haftara

The Sages ordained that in addition to the Torah reading, we read passages from the Prophets (the Nevi’im; the second part of Tanakh) that are related to the weekly Torah portion; one berakha is recited before the haftara and four blessings after.

This reading was instituted as a result of a decree. Once, during Second Temple era, there was a decree forbidding Jews from occupying themselves with Torah. Since they could not read from the Torah on Shabbat, the Sages ordained that a passage from the Prophets be read in the same way the Torah is read; they called up seven olim and recited Birkhot Ha-Torah. After the decree was abolished and they went back to reading the Torah every Shabbat, the Sages ordained that we continue reading passages from the Prophets. This reading is called the “haftara,” as it concludes (“maftir”) the Torah reading. They even ordained special berakhot for reading from the Prophets. Since at the time of the decree seven people were called to read from the Prophets, and each one read at least three verses, the haftara must contain at least 21 verses. However, if a section comes to a close before 21 verses are read, it is permissible to read fewer verses (SA 284:1, MB 2).

So that the haftara does not seem equal to the Torah in importance, the Sages ordained that the person reading the haftara (“the maftir”) is first called up to the Torah. This aliya is therefore called “maftir,” and its purpose is to make it clear that reading from the Prophets alone is not as important as reading from the Torah. Rather, only after reading from the Torah can one continue an read from the Prophets.

Some say that the haftara must be read from a parchment scroll of the Prophets,just like the Torah (Levush). However, many Aĥaronim write that it is permissible to read it from a printed book. Le-khatĥila, it is best to read the haftara from a book that contains that entire work of the Prophets, though be-di’avad it is also permissible to read it from a printed book in which only the verses of the haftara are printed, like they appear in the Ĥumashim nowadays (MB 284:1).

The person called up for maftir must be the sole person reading from the Prophets, and the congregation shall hear his reading. One who wishes to read along quietly may do so, as long as he does not distract neighbors from hearing the reader (MB 284:11; BHL).

06. Must Women Recite the Shabbat Prayers?

As we learned (above, 2:2-5), le-khatĥila women should pray the Amida of Shaĥarit and Minĥa every day (including Shabbat, when they recite the Shabbat Amida). Even if they pray one Amida daily, they still fulfill their obligation, and it is best if the one prayer is Shaĥarit. In extenuating circumstances, they may rely on those who maintain that women fulfill their obligation with Birkhot Ha-shaĥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah. Women who are busy raising children may rely on this opinion le-khatĥila. However, it is proper that even those women who act leniently on weekdays by only saying Birkhot Ha-shaĥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah recite the Amida of Shaĥarit on Shabbat, because on Shabbat there is usually more free time. Many women even enhance the mitzva by walking to the synagogue to pray with the congregation on Friday night and Shabbat morning.

Regarding Torah reading, we learned above (2:10) that according to Magen Avraham (283:6) women must hear Torah reading on Shabbat morning because women too  must hear the whole Torah over the course of the year. However, according to the vast majority of poskim, women are exempt from hearing Torah reading on Shabbat because it is a time-bound mitzva. Halakha follows this opinion. Still, it is preferable for women who wish to enhance the mitzva to hear Torah reading on Shabbat since all agree that although women are exempt, if one does hear it she indeed fulfills a mitzva for which she receives credit (see above, ch. 2 n. 13; whether or not women must hear Parashat Zakhor is addressed below, 23:5).

Concerning Musaf, we learned (2:9) that some poskim maintain that women must pray Musaf (Magen Giborim) and some say they need not (Tzelaĥ). In practice, since it is a rabbinic mitzva, halakha follows the lenient opinion, and there is no obligation for women to pray Musaf, although those who do are credited for it.

07. Should a Woman Skip Passages in Order to Recite the Amida with a Minyan?

It is commonly asked: What should a woman do when she arrives at the synagogue on Shabbat morning and the congregation is about to start the Amida? For men there are detailed halakhot that govern this situation. On one hand, the primary purpose of praying with a minyan is to recite the Amida with the congregation, and one skips Pesukei De-zimra to do so. On the other hand, men may not skip Birkhot Keri’at Shema so that they adjoin redemption to prayer (see Peninei Halakha: Prayer, 14:5 n. 8; 25:4). In contrast, women are not obligated to recite Birkhot Keri’at Shema and hence need not adjoin redemption to prayer. On the other hand, they are not obligated to pray with a minyan.

The answer is that technically every woman may decide for herself how to practice. If she wishes, she may pray the entire service, from Pesukei De-zimra to Keri’at Shema and its berakhot to the Amida. And if she wishes, she may pray the Amida right away with the congregation. This is because women are exempt from Pesukei De-zimra and Birkhot Keri’at Shema as well as from praying with a minyan with the congregation. As a result, there are two values in play, and each woman may choose which value she prefers. Most important is kavana; whatever she thinks will allow her to have more kavana is what she should do.

However, if a woman asks, it is best to recommend that she skip Pesukei De-zimra and Birkhot Keri’at Shema in order to pray the Amida with the minyan. Since a woman’s primary obligation is to pray the Amida only, it is preferable that she prays the Amida in the best possible way, with a minyan. She will also then have the opportunity to answer “amen” and respond to the Kedusha in Ĥazarat Ha-shatz and to hear the Torah reading. She should still make sure to recite Birkhot Ha-shaĥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah before the Amida, and if she has more time she should also say Shema and Emet Ve-yatziv so that she fulfills the mitzva to remember the Exodus and adjoins redemption to prayer. ¹

08. Kiddush and the Shabbat Meal

Two mitzvot from the Torah constitute Shabbat: the positive mitzva of Zakhor (“commemorate”) and the negative mitzva of Shamor (“observe”). Shamor entails refraining from all melakha (creative labor), whereas Zakhor means remembering the fundamentals of faith. The first principle we remember on Shabbat is the creation of the world, and the second is the Exodus.

Although Zakhor is a positive time-bound mitzva, women are obligated in its fulfillment just as men are since Zakhor and Shamor were uttered together in the Ten Commandments and have equal status. Therefore, just as women are obligated in the negative mitzva of Shamor, so too they are obligated in Zakhor. Since men and women have an equal obligation, a woman can make kiddush (a fulfillment of Zakhor) on a man’s behalf. Yet a minor cannot make kiddush on an adult’s behalf, since minors capable of grasping the idea of Shabbat are only rabbinically obligated in kiddush, whereas adults have a Torah obligation (SA 271:2).

The Sages ordained fulfilling the mitzva of Zakhor by saying the Friday night kiddush over a cup of wine. There are two berakhot in the nighttime kiddush: Ha-gafen on the wine and Mekadesh Ha-Shabbat on the sanctity of Shabbat. The recitation of kiddush over wine immediately before the meal teaches that the sanctity of Shabbat is expressed on all levels – not just the spiritual aspects of life, but even the material aspects. It is therefore recited over wine, which brings joy, and before a festive meal.

The Sages further ordained that kiddush be recited over wine during the day, just before the morning meal. By beginning the meal with kiddush, it is apparent that this meal is significant and special, and it reminds us of the holiness of Shabbat. Since the basis of the obligation of the daytime kiddush is rabbinic, no special berakha was instituted in honor of Shabbat; only Ha-gafen is recited, though verses relating to Shabbat are customarily recited beforehand. The Shabbat-day kiddush is called “Kidusha Rabba” (the “great kiddush”) euphemistically, as the nighttime kiddush is more important (see Peninei Halakha: Shabbat 5:1-3 for more on these laws).

Like men, women are obligated to eat three meals on Shabbat and to have leĥem mishneh (SA 291:6l; MB and BHL ad loc.).

09. Eating and Drinking Prior to the Nighttime Kiddush

When the time for Zakhor – fulfilled through kiddush – arrives, it is a mitzva to fulfill it with alacrity. So that this mitzva is not neglected, the Sages prohibited eating or drinking, even just water, before kiddush. However, one may wash out one’s mouth or swallow medication with water (SA 271:4; MB 13; SSK 52:3).

On Friday night, this prohibition applies the moment Shabbat begins. Therefore, a woman who accepted Shabbat when lighting the candles may not drink until she fulfills the mitzva of kiddush. A daughter who does not light candles must accept tosefet Shabbat by saying “Bo’i kalla Shabbat Ha-malka,” and from that point on she may not eat or drink until kiddush. Likewise, a man who accepted tosefet Shabbat may not eat or drink until he fulfills the mitzva of kiddush (MB 271:11; See Peninei Halakha: Shabbat 5:9).

10. Eating and Drinking Before Kiddush on Shabbat Morning

On Shabbat day, the prohibition to eat and drink begins at the time when it would be proper to recite kiddush. A woman who does not generally pray Shaĥarit on Shabbat (see above, 2:2-5) may not eat or drink from when she wakes up until she recites Birkhot Ha-shaĥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah and fulfills the obligation to recite kiddush.

For a woman who normally prays Shaĥarit on Shabbat, the time to recite kiddush begins after she prays Shaĥarit; from the time finishes Shaĥarit, she may not eat or drink until she fulfills the obligation of kiddush. Before praying, too, she may not eat or drink; although the prohibition on eating or drinking before the daytime kiddush does not yet apply, the prohibition on eating or drinking before prayer applies, as one must not put her needs before God’s honor. Nevertheless, she may drink water or take medicine, since drinking them is need-based and not an expression of arrogance.

A woman who knows that her mind will remain unsettled unless she drinks coffee or tea may drink them before praying, because there is no arrogance in drinking them; rather, she drinks out of need, to settle her mind and have kavana in her prayer. If possible, it is preferable that she drink the coffee or tea without sugar and milk. One who is concerned that if she does not eat anything she will be so hungry that she will be incapable of having proper kavana may eat a bit of cake or fruit before praying. ¹

In extenuating circumstances, a woman who does not know how to make kiddush but is thirsty and finds it difficult to wait to hear her husband say kiddush may recite Birkhot Ha-shaĥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah and drink before kiddush. If she becomes hungry, she may eat as well in extenuating circumstances. This is because there is an opinion that nowadays women are exempt from kiddush (Maharam Ĥalawa), and in extenuating circumstances one may rely on this opinion. ²

A married woman whose husband prayed early in the morning and returned from prayer wanting to recite kiddush and eat with his wife may partake in his kiddush and eat together with him, even if she intends to pray Shaĥarit afterward, because a healthy and halakhic family framework dictates that a woman eats with her husband. Nonetheless, she should take care to recite Birkhot Ha-shaĥar and Birkhot Ha-Torah beforehand (see above, n. 3, regarding the opinion of Igrot Moshe as well as 8:10).

A minor who has reached the age of education should le-khatĥila be habituated not to eat before kiddush; however if she is hungry or thirsty, she may eat and drink before kiddush (SSK 52:18; Yalkut Yosef 271:17).

11. Havdala

Women are obligated in the mitzva of Havdala just as men. Even though it is a positive time-bound mitzva, according to most poskim, Havdala is part of the mitzva of Zakhor, which commands us to mark Shabbat at its arrival with kiddush and at its departure with Havdala. Even according to those who maintain that Havdala is a rabbinic mitzva, the Sages instituted it for women as well, like kiddush.

There is an opinion that Havdala is a separate mitzva instituted by the Sages and that it is not a part of Zakhor and therefore, since it is time-bound, women are exempt from it (Orĥot Ĥayim). Out of consideration for that opinion, it is preferable le-khatĥila for a woman to hear Havdala recited by a man, for he certainly has the obligation to fulfill the mitzva of Havdala. However, if there is no man present who must recite Havdala, she recites it for herself, in accordance with the opinion of the vast majority of poskim. When she recites Havdala, she recites all of its berakhot. ¹

01. Rosh Ĥodesh and Birkat Ha-levana

These laws are numerous; hence, we shall mention but a few that pertain to women.

It is a mitzva to have an expansive Rosh Ĥodesh meal (SA 419:1). One may perform any type of labor on Rosh Ĥodesh; however, women customarily reduce their workload a bit on Rosh Ĥodesh. This is a noble custom, because Rosh Ĥodesh is considered a minor holiday for women, a reward for not having participated in the sin of the Golden Calf (SA 417:1; MB 3; this is explained at length in Peninei Halakha: Zemanim 1:6-7).

Women are exempt from Birkat Ha-levana (a monthly blessing on the moon), since it is a time-bound mitzva. Although according to Ashkenazic custom women may recite such berakhot, the widespread custom is that women do not recite this berakha (MB 426:1). ¹

02. Shofar and Musaf on the Days of Awe

Women are exempt from the mitzva of shofar since it is a positive time-bound mitzva, though women who wish to fulfill it earn reward. It is customary for Jewish women to fulfill the mitzva of shofar. If a man who already heard the shofar blows for women, he does not recite a berakha on their behalf. If a woman who follows Ashkenazic custom is present, she recites the berakha before the blowing, and if there are other women in attendance, they listen to her and respond “amen.” However, if all the women present follow Sephardic custom, they fulfill the mitzva without a berakha (SA 589:6; above, 2:8).

As we have learned (above, 2:9), the poskim disagree about whether women must pray Musaf. Some say that since Musaf contains a request for mercy, it is like other obligatory prayers, which, according to Ramban and most poskim, women must recite. Furthermore, since Musaf was instituted to honor the sanctity of the day, women must recite it just as they must recite kiddush (Magen Giborim). Others maintain that since Musaf is time-dependent, women are exempt from its recitation (Tzelaĥ). In practice, since it is a rabbinic commandment, halakhic practice follows the lenient opinion and women are not obligated to pray Musaf, although they may do so and are rewarded for it. On Rosh Hashana and Yom Kippur, it is proper that all women pray Musaf because the primary request for mercy on the Days of Awe is in Musaf.

Women fulfill Hatarat Nedarim (the annulment of vows) with the recitation of Kol Nidrei on the eve of Yom Kippur. Therefore, women should make sure to arrive at the synagogue in time for Kol Nidrei. A married woman may appoint her husband as an agent and ask him to annul her vows when he annuls his own. However, an unmarried woman may not appoint another man or woman to annul vows on her behalf (SA 239:56; Taz 46; Rav Pe’alim OĤ 4:34:5),

03. Sukkot

There are two time-bound positive mitzvot performed on Sukkot, the mitzva to sit in the sukka and the mitzva to take the lulav, and women are exempt from both. If they wish to perform them, they earn reward. According to Ashkenazic custom, they recite a berakha on the performance of these mitzvot, and according to Sephardic custom no blessing is recited on sitting in the sukka, though with regard to lulav, some recite a berakha and some do not. Every woman should continue following her custom. ¹

It is a mitzva to rejoice on this festival through nice clothing and nice jewelry as well as through meat, wine, and other delicacies that bring joy (SA 529:2; Peninei Halakha: Mo’adim 1:10). It is a mitzva on Ĥol Ha-mo’ed as well to be happy, dress nicely, and eat good food (MT, Laws of Yom Tov 6:17 and 22; MB 530:1; Peninei Halakha: Mo’adim 10:3).

04. “They too Participated in that Miracle” – Pesaĥ, Purim, and Ĥanuka

1. Yehoshua b. Levi said: Women must drink four cups of wine on the night of the Seder (Pesaĥim 108b), read the megilla (Megilla 4a), and light Ĥanuka candles (Shabbat 23a) “for they too participated in that miracle.”

There are two interpretations of this dictum: According to Rashi and Rashbam (Pesaĥim 108b; Shabbat 23a) women’s obligation stems from the fact that they participated significantly in those miracles. Regarding the Exodus the Sages said: “In the merit of the women who lived in that generation the Israelites were redeemed from Egypt” (Sota 11b). Despite the terrible slavery, the women did not lose hope of redemption; they reassured their husbands and gave birth to the next generation. The miracle of Purim, of course, transpired through Esther. The miracle of Ĥanuka began with a woman named Yehudit, who heroically beheaded the enemy governor and led to the abolition of the Greek decree of jus primae noctis (see Peninei Halakha: Zemanim, ch. 11 nn. 12-14). Thus, from a certain standpoint, women’s connection to these mitzvot supersedes that of men.

However, most commentaries understand that the words “they too” (“af hen”) indicate the primary obligation applies to men (who are obligated in time-bound positive mitzvot) and that women are obligated in the mitzva secondarily because “they too participated in that miracle” (Tosafot Pesaĥim 108b and Megilla 4a, Rashba, Ritva, Ran, Me’iri, and others).

5. Ĥanuka

As we have learned, women are obligated to light Ĥanuka candles, for they too participated in that miracle. A married woman fulfills her obligation through her husband’s lighting, and a daughter by her father’s. However, if the husbands or fathers do not light, either because they are not home or for another reason, the wife or daughter must light. A woman who lives alone must light her own candles.

A daughter who lives in her father’s house may light with a berakha according to Ashkenazic custom, even though her father already lit. According to Sephardic custom, only the head of household lights in the home (see Peninei Halakha: Zemanim 12:3-4 and n. 2).

Women customarily do not work while the Ĥanuka candles are burning, to demonstrate that these lights are for the sake of a mitzva and not for any utility and because the Ĥanuka miracle began with Yehudit, giving this holiday a higher status for women – akin to that of Ĥol Ha-mo’ed. According to the first reason, cooking and frying are forbidden at this time, because perhaps the light of the candles will assist the performance of these actions. According to the second reason, only actions forbidden on Ĥol Ha-mo’ed, such as laundry and sewing, are forbidden while the candles are burning; however cooking and frying foods are permitted, and that is the common custom. Families that customarily refrain from cooking and the like should continue to follow their custom. ¹

Some poskim maintain that women must recite Hallel on Ĥanuka. Since they too participated in that miracle, they must express gratitude for it. However, according to most poskim, they are not obligated, and that is the prevailing custom. Those who wish to enhance the mitzva are commendable. According to Ashkenazic custom, they recite it with a berakha, and according to Sephardic custom, they recite it without a berakha. ²