06. Customs During the Ten Days of Repentance

Avinu Malkeinu is customarily recited during Shaḥarit and Minḥa, following the ḥazan’s repetition of the Amida. This prayer is very powerful, as in it we turn to God from within two different types of relationships with Him: as children to their father and as servants to their king. The Gemara tells us that a fast was once declared because of drought. Many people’s prayers went unanswered. Rain did not fall until R. Akiva led the prayers, declaring: “Our Father, our King, we have no king but You. Our Father, our King, have mercy on us for Your sake.” To emphasize the importance of this prayer, it is customarily recited while standing. Many also open the ark during its recitation. Avinu Malkeinu is recited even when Taḥanun is omitted, such as in the presence of a newlywed or of a father on the day of his son’s brit (Rema 602:1). Even someone praying on his own may recite Avinu Malkeinu (Be’er Heitev 602:1; see Da’at Torah 584:1).

After Pesukei De-zimra and before Barkhu, most communities, following Arizal, add the psalm “Shir ha-ma’alot mi-ma’amakim” (Tehilim 130). It is not recited in Yemenite (Baladi) communities, and several Ashkenazic communities omit it as well, so as not to interrupt between Pesukei De-zimra and the berakhot preceding Shema. (See MB 54:4.)

It is permitted to get married during the Ten Days of Repentance. True, some great Ashkenazic rabbis maintain that weddings should not take place then, as it is meant to be a somber time (Mateh Ephraim 602:5; Kitzur Shulḥan Arukh 130:4). However, Sephardic communities do not share this concern, and even some Ashkenazim get married during this period. Therefore, weddings may be scheduled for the Ten Days of Repentance. There is even a certain advantage in entering Yom Kippur having just done this great mitzva (Sdei Ḥemed, Aseifat Dinim, Ma’arekhet Ḥatan Ve-kalla, klal 23; Melamed Le-ho’il EH §1). However, they should be pay special attention to ensuring that the wedding does not include immodest mingling of men and women.

07. Shabbat Shuva

The Shabbat during the Ten Days of Repentance is called “Shabbat Shuva” or “Shabbat Teshuva” after its haftara, which begins, “Return (shuva), O Israel, to the Lord your God, for you have fallen because of your sin” (Hoshea 14:2). It is also known that Shabbat is the source of blessing, and everything that happens during the week draws its vitality from Shabbat. In a sense, then, this Shabbat can be considered the root of Yom Kippur, and thus it is proper to use it for repentance (teshuva) and Torah study.

There is a widespread custom for the rabbi to give a special sermon on this Shabbat, dealing with the relevant laws of the period and rebuking the community with the goal of inspiring them to repent from their common sins and strengthen their Torah study, charity, and mitzva observance. This sermon is one of the two most important sermons of the year (the other being that of Shabbat Ha-gadol before Pesaḥ). Therefore, even if other rabbis give lectures and sermons during the year, on this Shabbat the local rabbi should speak. Since it is his community, he knows best which issues need to be addressed and what needs to be improved. Everyone should attend this sermon, from Torah scholars to simple and uneducated people who will not fully understand the rabbi. Some rabbis wrap themselves in a talit when they speak, in honor of the audience and the sermon. (See Mateh Ephraim 602:41; Elef Ha-magen ad loc. 23.)

In the past, some communities held the sermon in the morning, between Shaḥarit and the Torah reading. In large communities with many synagogues, where it is difficult to gather everyone together in the middle of the service, the sermon is held right after Minḥa. Minḥa is scheduled for two or three hours before shki’a so the rabbi can speak at length and still leave time to eat se’uda shlishit (Mateh Ephraim 602:42). In many communities, the sermon is delivered between se’uda shlishit and Ma’ariv.

On Shabbat Shuva (and the preceding Friday afternoon), Ashkenazim, Yemenites, and some Sephardim (including many of North African descent) do not recite Avinu Malkeinu, since Shabbat is not a time for personal requests. Even if Rosh Ha-shana itself is on Friday or Shabbat, they do not recite Avinu Malkeinu (Sefer Ha-pardes; Roke’aḥ; Ran; Responsa Rivash §512; Rema 602:1; MB 584:4). Many Sephardim do say Avinu Malkeinu on Shabbat during the Ten Days of Repentance, including Rosh Ha-shana. This does not show disrespect for Shabbat, since these days are designated for repentance and prayer for the upcoming year (R. Amram Gaon; Rabbeinu Gershom; Me’iri; Kaf Ha-ḥayim 584:7-8).

Many people wait to recite Kiddush Levana until after Yom Kippur, because Kiddush Levana should be recited joyfully, and only after Yom Kippur does the tension of judgment dissipate. Then people leave the synagogue feeling joyful (Maharil; Rema 602:1; Pri Ḥadash; R. Mordechai Eliyahu; 7:19 below). Others disagree, maintaining that people should recite the prayer during the Ten Days of Repentance, as doing so might tip the scales in their favor (Levush; Ḥida; Vilna Gaon). Every community should continue with its custom.

08. Kaparot

Some ritually slaughter a chicken before Yom Kippur for “kaparot” (“atonements”). The idea is that whatever was supposed to befall the person should befall the chicken instead, sparing the person. (A rooster is a “gever” in Hebrew, the same as the word for “man.”) Some say that we should not perform this ceremony, as it is considered to be “darkhei emori,” a gentile custom based on foreign beliefs, with no Torah source. Rashba writes that when he first arrived in his city, he found that kaparot was widely practiced, along with other strange customs which the Jews had learned from the non-Jews. He explained to the community that this custom was disgraceful and ordered them to stop it (Responsa Rashba 1:395). This is also the ruling of Shulḥan Arukh (605:1).

In contrast, Rema writes that the custom should not be abandoned, as it is a venerable one, dating back to Geonic times. This is also the position of Arizal. Due to his influence, many people, both Ashkenazim and Sephardim, perform kaparot. This is how it is done: On Erev Yom Kippur, in the early morning, a chicken is acquired for each member of the household. It is passed over their heads, and they say, “Let this be my exchange, let this be my substitute, let this be my atonement, etc.” The chicken is then slaughtered. When possible, a rooster should be acquired for each male, and a hen for each female. A pregnant woman should use a hen for herself, and both a rooster and a hen for her fetus. If white chickens are available, they should be used, to recall the verse, “Be your sins like crimson, they can turn snow-white” (Yeshayahu 1:18). While the chicken is being slaughtered, the person should have in mind that the chicken is his stand-in; everything happening to the chicken really should be happening to him. Afterward the custom is to give the meat or its monetary equivalent to the poor, so that they will have food for proper meals before and after the fast. Someone who cannot obtain chickens can fulfill the custom using geese or fish. There are only two requirements: that the animals are kosher, and that they cannot be offered as sacrifices (so that it does not look as if one is offering a sacrifice outside the Temple precincts).

Over the course of time, as the custom became more widespread, ritual slaughterers found themselves under a lot of pressure to work very quickly on Erev Yom Kippur. This led to concern that they might not check their knives properly or slaughter correctly. As a result, poskim ruled that it was preferable either to delay the slaughter until after morning services or to have it done a day or two early, since any time within the Ten Days of Repentance is an appropriate time for the ritual.

Nowadays, many people fulfill this custom by giving charity – the value of a chicken on behalf of each family member. Those who do so because of the difficulty of ensuring proper slaughter pass the money overhead instead of a chicken. Those who do so because they feel that this ritual is non-Jewish in origin do not pass the money over their heads. They simply give it to charity, which is certainly an appropriate thing to do before Yom Kippur.

Each person can choose which custom to follow. Nevertheless, if his family has a custom, it is preferable to follow it.

09. Eating on Erev Yom Kippur

There is a mitzva to eat heartily on Erev Yom Kippur (SA 604:1), and according to most poskim, the mitzva is of Torah origin (MA and MB 604:1). The Sages said, “One who eats and drinks on the ninth [of Tishrei] – the Torah considers it as though he fasted on the ninth and tenth” (Yoma 81b). Even though fasting is harder than eating, God wants to increase our reward, so He considers our eating on the ninth as if it were fasting.^[4]

The reason for this mitzva is to prepare for the fast (Rashi) and to have the strength to pray properly on Yom Kippur (Sha’arei Teshuva 4:10). Therefore, one should eat heartily especially at the se’uda ha-mafseket, the last meal before the fast. This mitzva also expresses God’s love for us. He commands us to fast only one day a year to atone for our sins, but out of His abundant concern for our well-being, He commands us to eat and drink before the fast so that we will have the strength to get through it unharmed (Rosh; Tur OḤ 604). According to another view, even though eating before the fast is helpful physiologically, it has an element of inui (affliction), as it is difficult to transition from the pleasure of eating to the challenge of fasting (Shibolei Ha-leket; AHS 604:4).

Additionally, excessive eating is indeed an inui from the perspective of human spirituality, as it places an emphasis on the body. This, then, is precisely the point of the mitzva – to purify and improve the body as well as the soul, for perfect service of God is with the body and soul together. On the one hand, we must be wary of the evil inclination, which draws a person toward physical desires. On the other hand, we should not conclude that holiness is revealed only when the soul is alienated from the body and the physical world. It is specifically by highlighting the sacred value of physical enjoyment on Erev Yom Kippur that we can wholly repent on Yom Kippur (Shlah, Masekhet Yoma, Torah Or §136).

There is another important reason for eating on the ninth. All the Torah’s commandments must be undertaken with wholehearted joy, which includes physical enjoyment. Certainly, the mitzva of repentance should be done joyfully, since through it we are purged of all our sins – sins which demean us and depress our spirits. For this reason, Yom Kippur is a Yom Tov, which deserves to be celebrated with food and drink. However, while repenting, open joy is inappropriate, as one of the main components of repentance is sorrow and regret – which is why Yom Kippur is a fast day. We are therefore commanded to give physical expression to the joy of the mitzva of repentance on Erev Yom Kippur. Thus, we can repent completely on Yom Kippur, despite the somber nature of the day (Sha’arei Teshuva 4:8; R. Moshe Cordovero).

This mitzva entails eating and drinking more than usual. Some say that on Erev Yom Kippur one should eat two days’ worth of food. Le–khatḥila, one should eat at least one bread-based meal; many have two such meals. (See MB 608:18; Kaf Ha-ḥayim 604:2.) Arizal says that eating for the sake of heaven on Erev Yom Kippur allows a person to make up for any spiritual imperfection connected with his eating during the year. This eating is so important that one should study less Torah to fulfill this mitzva maximally (MA 604).

Even though there is a mitzva to eat and drink large amounts, one should eat light, easy to digest foods, rather than heavy ones. We must also be careful not to get drunk, as prayer requires sobriety (SA 608:4; MB ad loc. 18).

The primary mitzva is to eat during the day, not the preceding night (Vilna Gaon; AHS 604:5). Still, several poskim write that eating at night is something of a mitzva as well (Baḥ; Birkei Yosef).

Even if one is exempt from fasting (e.g., one is dangerously ill), there is a mitzva to eat on Erev Yom Kippur, to express the joy of the day and the joy of the mitzva (Ketav Sofer OḤ §112). If he does not have the strength to eat very much, he should at least be careful not to fast, as fasting on Erev Yom Kippur is prohibited, even for those trying to neutralize a bad dream (Rema 604:1). Someone who eats even a small amount of food (the volume of a kotevet, a large date) or drinks a small amount of liquid (a cheek-full) is no longer considered to be fasting (Minḥat Ḥinukh 313:15).

10. Erev Yom Kippur Customs

Taḥanun is not recited on Erev Yom Kippur during Shaḥarit, since the day is a quasi-holiday, and Taḥanun has an element of broken-heartedness that impairs the day’s joy (SA 604:2). Most communities also omit Taḥanun during the Seliḥot recited the preceding night, because the night, too, is somewhat festive. Nevertheless, they do recite vidui in Seliḥot. This is the custom of Ashkenazim, Yemenites, and some Sephardim (Levush 604:2; Shiyarei Knesset Ha-gedola; Shulḥan Gavo’ah; Kaf Ha-ḥayim 604:19). Some Sephardim recite Taḥanun if they are praying before dawn, but not if they are praying after dawn (Ma’amar Mordekhai, Hilkhot Ḥagim 44:4).

Ashkenazim do not recite Avinu Malkeinu on Erev Yom Kippur unless Yom Kippur itself is on Shabbat (when Avinu Malkeinu is not said), in which case Avinu Malkenu is recited at Shaḥarit of Erev Yom Kippur. Sephardim always say Avinu Malkeinu on Erev Yom Kippur, as many of them recite it even when Yom Kippur itself is on Shabbat (SA and Rema 604:2; MB ad loc.; section 7 above).

Eulogies are not delivered on Erev Yom Kippur unless the deceased was a Torah scholar. In such a case, eulogies are offered where body is present (SAH 604:4).

Some communities recite extra Seliḥot on Erev Yom Kippur, while others recite fewer (Rema 604:2). Ashkenazic practice for the past few centuries has been to recite fewer Seliḥot, in accordance with the opinion that there is a mitzva to eat and drink at night as well, which implies that it is a quasi-holiday on which Seliḥot should be kept to a minimum (Shlah). Sephardim do not shorten the Seliḥot, as they are recited at night. Nevertheless, it is good for even those who recite the full Seliḥot to eat and drink a bit extra on the night of the ninth.

Some have the custom of going to mikveh on Erev Yom Kippur, to purify themselves in anticipation of the Day of Judgment and as part of their repentance. However, no berakha is recited prior to this immersion since it is only a custom (SA 606:4). One who wishes to follow this custom but finds it difficult may wash with nine kavim (approximately 11 liters) of water instead (Rema ad loc.). That is, he should stand in the shower while nine kavim of water streams down on him without interruption. He should ensure that this water comes into contact with his entire body (Peninei Halakha: Festivals 1:16 and n. 8). In the past, women immersed before Yom Kippur. Nowadays, very few women do so.

Some had the custom of undergoing thirty-nine lashes after Minḥa, to inspire them to repent. The person being whipped would bend forward, and the person administering the lashes would strike him on the back while reciting the verse “Ve-hu raḥum” (Tehilim 78:38) three times. He would administer one lash with each word. The lashes were not strong. It was done with any type of string or strap and meant to recall the punishment of lashes (SA and Rema 607:6). Nowadays, very few people do this.

Even though the mitzva to confess is primarily on Yom Kippur, our Sages instituted the recitation of vidui before the se’uda ha-mafseket as well. This was out of concern that someone might get drunk during the meal and thus be unable to confess on Yom Kippur itself. Therefore, the custom is to recite Minḥa before the meal and to confess then, during the silent Amida (Yoma 87b; SA 607:1).

At the start of Yom Kippur, before going to synagogue for Ma’ariv, many parents bestow berakhot on their children.

11. Hatarat Nedarim (Annulment of Vows)

There is a universal Jewish custom to annul vows on Erev Rosh Ha-shana in order to enter the holiday free from the serious sin of unfulfilled vows (Shlah, Masekhet Yoma §2-4; Ḥayei Adam 138:8). Some also annul vows before Yom Kippur. The recitation of Kol Nidrei at the start of Yom Kippur is directed toward this goal as well.

This annulment is effective for vows that a person forgot having made. It is also effective in annulling the obligation to continue performing a positive custom that one performed three times without stipulating that it does not have the force of a vow. It also annuls commitments to voluntary mitzvot that one undertook without specifying that it does not have the force of a vow. In contrast, if a person remembers making a specific vow, he is not released from it until he details it before three “judges,” who can release him based on a loophole and his regret (SA YD 228:14).^[5]

The annulment entails appearing before three men and asking them to release him from the vow. Even three hedyotot (regular people, non-rabbis) can release him, as long as they can understand the words of Torah and grasp the meaning of annulling vows. (See ibid. 228:1.) To release him, the three men say three times: “It is permitted to you,” “It is allowed to you,” or “You are forgiven.” Siddurim have a standard formula for requesting and granting annulment.

Since this annulment is not considered judgment, it may be done at night, and the three people on the “court” may be related to one another or to the person asking for the annulment. Accordingly, three brothers may annul the vow of a fourth brother (ibid. 228:3). However, if a woman requests a vow annulment, her husband may not be one of the three (ibid. 234:57).

The person asking for an annulment customarily stands, while the three people granting the annulment sit, as a court would. Many people may stand before the “court” at once and ask that their vows be annulled, and the annulment may be extended to the whole group at once. Nevertheless, some are careful to annul the vows of one person at a time (Mateh Ephraim 581:49).

If one dreamed that he made a vow, some say he should have it annulled. Some even say that this annulment requires a panel of ten. Though most poskim do not require any type of annulment for a vow made in a dream, as it is not real, le-khatḥila we defer to the stringent view (SA YD 210:2). If he cannot easily find a group of ten, he may request an annulment before three, as one normally does for vows (Rema ad loc.).^[6]

Women effectively annul their vows with the recitation of Kol Nidrei. For this reason, they make sure to attend services on the night of Yom Kippur. A married woman can appoint her husband as her agent to annul her vows when he annuls his own. Since the two of them are like one unit, when he stands before the “court,” it is as if she is with him. However, an unmarried woman cannot appoint an agent (male or female) to act on her behalf and annul her vows (SA YD 234:56; Taz ad loc. 46; Rav Pe’alim OḤ 4:34).

12. Disclaiming Future Vows

Our Sages state, “If one wants to invalidate his vows for the whole year, he should stand on Rosh Ha-shana and say, ‘All vows that I make in the future are hereby void’” (Nedarim 23b). This is called “issuing a disclaimer” (“mesirat moda’a”) in halakhic parlance. When we recite Kol Nidrei at the start of Yom Kippur, not only do we nullify past vows, we also issue a disclaimer when we say, “From this Yom Kippur until next Yom Kippur.” Even so, the custom is to issue a disclaimer on Erev Rosh Ha-shana as well, while annulling vows, because those who are enthusiastic perform a mitzva at the earliest opportunity (“zerizim makdimim le-mitzvot”). The earlier declaration is also helpful to one who is late for Kol Nidrei or does not understand that Kol Nidrei involves issuing a disclaimer.^[7]

According to most poskim, the disclaimer is effective as long as the person making the vow has forgotten that he made such a declaration. However, if he makes a vow while aware of the disclaimer, his vow takes effect, for by making the vow, he implicitly annuls his disclaimer (SA YD 211:2).

In practice, one who made a vow does not rely on the disclaimer to annul it. Rather, if he does not want to fulfill the vow, he must go to three men to annul it. There are two reasons for this: First, some maintain that a disclaimer is effective only in the unusual case where the person remembers it immediately (tokh kedei dibur) following the vow and intends for the declaration to nullify the vow. However, if the person making the vow did not recall the disclaimer immediately, the vow remains valid. In practice, we take their position into account (SA YD 211:2). Second, even though most poskim say that the disclaimer is effective and nullifies the vow, they still require the person to have the vow annulled before three men. This is because there are cases where the vow takes effect according to the majority opinion, such as if he makes it while remembering that he had issued the disclaimer, and the Sages were concerned that the seriousness of such vows would be undermined if most vows are automatically annulled by the disclaimer (Mahari Weil; Rema YD 211:1). It should also be noted that all agree that the disclaimer is not effective in the case of a vow that one person makes to another, because such a vow is not solely under his control (SA 211:4).

The disclaimer effectively ensures that good practices that one carried out three times are not considered like vows. Without the disclaimer, unless someone explicitly stipulates that he is not making a vow (e.g., he says “bli neder”), doing something three times consecutively is considered a vow. Likewise, a disclaimer is effective for one who resolves to give charity or do another mitzva and does not explicitly state that it does not have the force of a vow. Without the disclaimer, since he did not say “bli neder,” his resolution is considered a vow (Da’at Torah YD 211:2).

Technically, if one issues a disclaimer out loud, it is effective even if he is alone, and his vows are thus nullified. Nevertheless, it is better to issue the disclaimer in the presence of three men. In fact, this is how we nullify vows on Erev Rosh Ha-shana (Ritva, Nedarim 23b; Kol Nidrei 81:10).

If a woman attends Kol Nidrei and understands the meaning of the disclaimer, her vows are annulled with its recitation. If she does not attend, it is proper for her to recite the disclaimer to herself. Thinking it is not enough; she must actually verbalize it.

01. The Gift of Atonement

In His great love for the Jewish people, God took us out of Egypt, forged an eternal covenant with us, and designated and sanctified a special day each year for us, to atone for our sins. Thus, we read: “For on this day, atonement shall be made for you to purify you of all your sins; you shall purify yourselves before the Lord” (Vayikra 16:30). Purity and atonement are from God. Without them, no matter how much a person regrets past actions, he can only improve his actions in the future, but can never annul what he did in the past. Yet God, in His abundant mercy and kindness, established the Day of Atonement and the mitzva of repentance to allow us to actually erase previous sins, transgressions, and misdeeds. Thus R. Akiva proclaims:

Fortunate are you, Israel – for before Whom do you purify yourselves and Who purifies you? Your Father in heaven, as we read: “I will sprinkle pure water upon you, and you shall be pure” (Yeḥezkel 36:25), and “God is the hope (mikveh) of Israel” (Yirmiyahu 17:13). Just as a mikveh purifies the impure, so too, God purifies Israel. (Yoma 85b)

Throughout the year, there are barriers that block the revelation of God’s light in the world. However, on Yom Kippur the gates of heaven open, and a beam of divine light shines at the roots of Jewish souls, purifying them. The elevated souls immerse themselves in this light as if it were a mikveh, and they are purified from the filth of sin.

Since atonement, in its essence, is granted by God and at His will, even when Israel does not repent, Yom Kippur illuminates their inner goodness and thus cleanses the roots of their souls. However, the sins remain, so in order to neutralize their effects, suffering is necessary. This is the purpose of suffering in this world and the next. The more people regret their sins and return to God, the more effectively Yom Kippur purifies even the ramifications of sins, rendering further suffering unnecessary. This is reflected in the central berakha in the Yom Kippur Amida:

And You, Lord our God, have lovingly given us this Yom Kippur for pardoning, forgiving, and atoning – to pardon all our iniquities – a sacred occasion commemorating the exodus from Egypt…. Our God and God of our forefathers: pardon our iniquities on this Yom Kippur; wipe away and remove all our transgressions and sins from before Your eyes, as it is said: “I, I am the One Who shall wipe away your transgressions for My sake, and I shall not recall your sins” (Yeshayahu 43:25). And it is said: “I have wiped away, like mist, your transgressions, and like a cloud, your sins; return to Me, for I have redeemed you” (ibid. 44:22). And it is said: “For on this day, atonement shall be made for you to purify you of all your sins; you shall purify yourselves before the Lord” (Vayikra 16:30). Sanctify us through Your mitzvot and grant that our lot be in Your Torah. Satisfy us with Your goodness, delight our souls with Your salvation, and purify our hearts to serve You in truth. For You are the Forgiver of Israel and the Pardoner of the tribes of Yeshurun in every generation, and without You we have no king who pardons and forgives but You. Blessed are You, Lord, King Who pardons and forgives our iniquities and those of all His people the house of Israel, and removes our guilt each year, King of all the earth, Who sanctifies Israel and Yom Kippur.

02. Mitzvot of the Day

The special nature of Yom Kippur is expressed through the mitzvot of the day. Three of its mitzvot are shared by other holy days:

1. Making it a sacred occasion, by designating it for holy purposes and honoring it with nice clothes and a clean house. As we read: “The tenth day of this seventh month is the Day of Atonement. It shall be a sacred occasion for you” (Vayikra 23:27). This is explained further in 7:1 below.
2. Abstaining from melakha, just as we abstain on Shabbat. As we read: “You shall do no work throughout that day. For it is a Day of Atonement, on which atonement is made on your behalf before the Lord your God…. And whoever does any work throughout that day, I will cause that person to perish from among his people. Do no work whatsoever; it is a law for all time, throughout the ages, in all your settlements” (ibid. 28-31). This is explained further in 7:2 below.
3. Offering musaf sacrifices, like other holidays and Rosh Ḥodesh, as we read: “You shall present to the Lord a burnt offering of pleasing odor: one bull of the herd, one ram, seven yearling lambs; see that they are without blemish…. And there shall be one goat for a sin offering, in addition to the sin offering of expiation and the regular burnt offering with its meal offering, each with its libation” (Bamidbar 29:8-11).

Additionally, three mitzvot are unique to Yom Kippur:

1. Fasting, as we read: “The Lord spoke to Moshe, saying: The tenth day of this seventh month is the Day of Atonement. It shall be a sacred occasion for you: you shall afflict yourselves, and you shall bring an offering by fire to the Lord…. Indeed, any person who does not afflict himself throughout that day shall be cut off from his kin…. It shall be a Shabbat of complete rest for you, and you shall afflict yourselves; on the ninth day of the month at evening, from evening to evening, you shall observe this your Shabbat” (Vayikra 23:26-32; also see Vayikra 16:29; Bamidbar 29:7).
2. Repenting and confessing our sins, as we read: “For on this day, atonement shall be made for you to purify you of all your sins; you shall purify yourselves before the Lord” (Vayikra 16:30). The meaning of “You shall purify yourselves” is “You shall repent” (MT, Laws of Repentance 2:7; Sha’arei Teshuva 4:17).
3. Offering a special set of sacrifices to atone for the sins of Israel, climaxing with the Kohen Gadol entering the Kodesh Ha-kodashim, where he offered incense and sprinkled blood from the sin offerings. The special offerings of Yom Kippur included: a bull as a sin offering, atoning for the Kohen Gadol and the other kohanim; a ram as a burnt offering; and two goats as sin offerings, one for God and one for Azazel. The Kohen Gadol sprinkled blood from the bull and from the goat designated for God, first inside the Kodesh Ha-kodashim, and then on the parokhet and the golden altar. The goat of Azazel carried the sins of Israel to an appropriate place in the desert. (See chapter 10 below.)

Nowadays, with the Temple laid waste, Yom Kippur itself atones for Israel, together with fasting and repentance. To a certain extent, the prayers of the day, especially the Musaf prayers, take the place of the sacrifices (MT, Laws of Repentance 1:3; below 10:18).

03. The Atonement of Yom Kippur

In Biblical Hebrew, the Day of Atonement is called “Yom Ha-kippurim”; colloquially, we call it “Yom Kippur.” The root of “kippurim,” K-P-R, has many meanings, all of which are relevant to Yom Kippur. First, “kapara” can indicate covering. This was the function of the kaporet, the lid that covered the ark in the Temple; likewise, kapara covers up sins. A second meaning of “kapara” is an exchange or ransom (kofer). Sin, which originates in impure forces, is “exchanged” and returned to its place via the goat of Azazel. Third, “kapara” can mean cleansing or wiping clean. Atonement wipes us clean of the foulness of sin. Fourth, “kapara” can indicate neutralization or renouncement. As Yaakov says, “I will neutralize (akhapra) [Esav’s anger]” (Bereishit 32:21); Yaakov sought to counter Esav’s wrath with gifts (Rashi ad loc.). Fifth, “kapara” indicates appeasement. Neutralizing a sin can appease an injured party or heavenly accuser. (See Rashi, Mishlei 16:14.) Finally, “kapara” can connote fragrance, as one might understand the phrase “eshkol ha-kofer” (Shir Ha-shirim 1:14) to mean “a spray of fragrant blooms.” So too, repentance out of love transforms unknowing sins into merits, releasing a pleasant scent.

Commenting on the verse, “Days will be created, and one of them will be His” (Tehilim 139:16), our Sages suggest that “one of them” refers to Yom Kippur, the most unique day of the year:

For it is a happy time for God, Whose word brought the world into being, Who lovingly gave [Yom Kippur] to the Jewish people. This can be compared to a king of flesh and blood whose servants and household members collected the palace garbage and threw it in front of his doorway (in order to remove it from the city). When the king saw the garbage, it made him very happy. Similarly, God gave Yom Kippur to the Jews out of love and with great joy…. When He forgives the sins of Israel, He is not sad, but rather very happy. He tells the mountains and hills, the rivers and valleys: “Celebrate with Me! Let all rejoice, for I am forgiving Israel’s sins!” (Tanna De-vei Eliyahu Rabba 1)

Our Sages tell us that Yom Kippur’s special power is hinted at in the name of the accusing angel – ha-satan – whose name has the numerical value of 364. For 364 days of the year, the prosecuting angel is permitted to block the divine light from manifesting in the world and to prosecute the Jewish people. But a year has 365 days, so there is one day a year on which the satan may not prosecute Israel: Yom Kippur, when root of the sanctity of Israel, connected with God, is revealed (Yoma 20a). Had God not established a day of atonement and forgiveness, sins would accumulate year after year. Eventually, Israel and the whole world would deserve destruction. (See Sefer Ha-ḥinukh §185.)

The entire day of Yom Kippur atones. Therefore, even if someone dies during Yom Kippur, his sins are forgiven (Keritot 7a). However, atonement is completed at the end of Yom Kippur, when the fast reaches its peak and all the prayers and meditations of Yom Kippur merge together (y. Yoma 4:7). This accounts for the intensity of Ne’ila, the closing prayer.^[1]

04. Atonement on Yom Kippur and the Covenant with Israel

Yom Kippur is founded upon the covenant that God forged with our forefathers Avraham, Yitzḥak, and Yaakov, sustained through the mitzva of circumcision, strengthened when God delivered Israel from Egypt, and sealed when God gave us the Torah. The continued existence of the world depends on this covenant, as the Sages say, “God made a condition with creation and said, ‘If Israel accepts the Torah, you will continue to exist; if not, I will return the world to chaos’” (Shabbat 88a). This is because the entire purpose of creation is for Israel to reveal God’s word, as we read, “This people I formed for Myself that they might declare My praise” (Yeshayahu 43:21). Similarly, the Sages say, “The heavens and the earth were created only in the merit of Israel” (Vayikra Rabba 36:4).

This covenant was revealed to the Jews on Yom Kippur, when God completely forgave the sin of the Golden Calf and renewed His covenant with Israel by giving them the second set of Tablets and commanding them to build the Mishkan so that His presence could dwell in their midst (Pirkei De-Rabbi Eliezer 46; Tanḥuma, Teruma §8 and Ki Tisa §31).

This covenant is not dependent upon the deeds of Israel. Rather, it is linked to the unique soul with which God endowed Israel, a soul that, at its root, longs to improve the world by revealing divine light. This is the meaning of the verse, “For you are a people consecrated to the Lord your God; of all the peoples on earth, the Lord your God chose you to be His treasured people” (Devarim 7:6). Similarly, we read, “For the Lord has chosen Yaakov for Himself, Israel, as His treasured possession” (Tehilim 135:4). Therefore, no matter how much Israel sins, the covenant will never be invalidated, as we read, “For the Lord will not forsake His people; He will not abandon His very own” (ibid. 94:14), and “For the sake of His great name, the Lord will never abandon His people, seeing that the Lord undertook to make you His people” (1 Shmuel 12:22).

However, if Israel sins they are punished with terrible suffering, and the more they sin the more terrible and severe the punishments are. This is in order to purify them and lead them to repent. But the Jews will never be able to abrogate the divine covenant. As we read:

And what you have in mind shall never come to pass – when you say, “We will be like the nations, like the families of the lands, worshiping wood and stone.” As I live – declares the Lord God – I will reign over you with a strong hand, and with an outstretched arm and overflowing fury. With a strong hand and an outstretched arm and overflowing fury I will bring you out from the peoples and gather you from the lands where you are scattered, and I will bring you into the wilderness of the peoples; and there I will enter into judgment with you face to face…. I will make you pass under the shepherd’s staff, and I will bring you into the bond of the covenant. (Yeḥezkel 20:32-27).

In general, the world is governed by the principles of justice, for God ordained at the time of the world’s creation that the world would be governed according to people’s actions. When they choose good, goodness is increased; when they choose evil, goodness is minimized and suffering increases. Based on this, it would seem that if sin were to increase beyond a certain point, it would destroy the world. Yom Kippur precludes this; the gates of heaven are opened, supernal divine rule is revealed, the sins of Israel are forgiven at their roots, and the world endures and progresses toward its ultimate redemption. Nevertheless, the rule of justice is not abrogated. Any sin or iniquity that was not corrected through repentance is punished. If the sins are great and many, the punishments will be very hard to bear, but they will improve and refine Israel. This is explained in the Torah, Nevi’im (the Prophets), and the Sages: Even if Israel does not repent, the promised redemption will arrive. The choice is ours whether it will arrive speedily and joyfully or (God forbid) at the end of a long, hard road of terrible suffering.

Since the atonement of Yom Kippur is rooted in the uniqueness of Israel, all the prayers and confessions we recite are in the plural. They are collective, asking God to forgive our sins, draw us closer to His service, and reveal His presence to us so that we can reveal His glory and guidance to the world. As a result, blessing flows in the world to the Jewish people, to each individual Jew, and to all the earth’s inhabitants.

05. The Power of Yom Kippur to Atone for the Individual

A spirit of purity and atonement extends to every Jew through the general holiness and atonement of Israel on Yom Kippur, enabling him to cling to God more strongly, free himself from the impurity of sins and iniquities, and repent. Accordingly, there is a distinct mitzva for each and every individual to repent on Yom Kippur, as we read, “For on this day, atonement shall be made for you to purify you of all your sins; you shall purify yourselves before the Lord” (Vayikra 16:30). The repentance and atonement of each individual is an extension of the collective atonement that this verse describes (Sha’arei Teshuva 4:17; MT, Laws of Repentance 2:7).

On Yom Kippur, repentance is more readily accepted than it is during the rest of the year. The severity of a sin depends upon the degree of wantonness with which it was done, which indicates how distant a person is from God and Torah. On Yom Kippur, when the gates of heaven are open, the covenant between God and the Jews is revealed, and the soul’s light shines brightly, it becomes clear that fundamentally every Jew wishes to be close to God, do His will, observe His mitzvot, be good, and study Torah. When he stumbles and sins, it is due to the seductions of the evil inclination, the daily grind, and material needs, all of which hide the divine light. Even if someone sins knowingly, the knowledge is not absolute, as he lacks awareness of his innermost desires. The more a person connects with the sanctity of the Jewish people as a whole on Yom Kippur, the more he uncovers his innermost desires, flowing from the root of his soul. This lessens the severity of his sins, iniquities, and transgressions. Knowing sins are reclassified as unknowing, and unknowing sins as though committed under duress. Therefore, it is easier for him to regret his sins and repent, undertaking to be better.

While the primary focus of Yom Kippur and its prayers is the Jewish people as a whole, this does not detract from the individual’s repentance. On the contrary, by tapping into the sanctity of klal Yisrael, the individual is able to fully repent. Similarly, the individual’s repentance for his sins need not detract from his prayers for the revelation of the Shekhina and the well-being of klal Yisrael, as each individual who returns to God increases the holiness and blessing of klal Yisrael.

Based on this, we can understand why the confessions we recite on Yom Kippur are in the plural even though no one has committed all the sins mentioned. For Yom Kippur is a day of atonement for the entire people. While each individual becomes closer to the root of his soul, he also becomes more connected with klal Yisrael, asking that everyone be granted atonement and forgiveness for their sins. Thus he repents for his personal sins (7:4 below).

06. The Meaning of Fasting

It is a mitzva to fast on Yom Kippur. This fast is connected to atonement for sins, as we read:

And this shall be to you a law for all time: In the seventh month, on the tenth day of the month, you shall deprive yourselves; and you shall do no manner of work, neither the citizen nor the stranger who resides among you. For on this day, atonement shall be made for you to purify you of all your sins; you shall purify yourselves before the Lord. (Vayikra 16:29-30)

A question arises. If the Torah wanted to establish a day for repentance and atonement, wouldn’t it have made more sense to allow us to eat and drink a little, so that we would be clear-headed and able to concentrate on prayer and repentance?

In fact, however, fasting discloses something deeper. Throughout the year, the soul is enveloped by a cloak of physicality, of various bodily desires, which make people forget their inner aspirations and sin. God commanded us to fast on Yom Kippur so that our soul can disconnect itself somewhat from the bonds of the body and materiality, thus allowing its true, noble aspirations to be free and to express themselves. Through this sublime connection to the root of our souls, our sins fall away and are cast into Azazel (Derekh Hashem 4:8:5).

True, fasting and the other deprivations make it harder for us to focus. However, they allow us to come to the profound realization that our true desire is to cling to God. Deep down, we want to improve the world by following the Torah’s instructions and living by its light. This leads to a higher quality of repentance, each person on his own level.

Therefore, even if one needs to lie down in order to continue fasting, he should not be discouraged, because he has internalized the most basic element of Yom Kippur. Even while lying in bed, he can think about self-improvement and resolve to increase his Torah study, his mitzva observance, and his commitment to his family.

Fasting also serves a purpose akin to that of sacrifice. During Temple times, when a person offered an animal sacrifice, its blood and fat were burnt on the altar, bringing him atonement. Likewise, when we fast on Yom Kippur, our blood and fat, which decrease with the fast, bring us atonement. We should therefore imagine that we are sacrificing ourselves on the altar. Our blood and fat decrease, ascend to God as a sweet-smelling fragrance, and atone for us. Thus, one ascends to the highest level, beyond thought and comprehension, where there is only the desire for and simple awareness of doing the will of our Father in heaven. (See Berakhot 17a; Recanati, Vayikra 16:29; Zohar Ḥadash, Ruth 80a.)

In one sense, Shabbat is holier than Yom Kippur. The punishment for doing melakha on Shabbat is stoning, while on Yom Kippur it is “only” the less severe karet. Additionally, on Shabbat seven people are called up to the Torah, while on Yom Kippur only six are (Megilla 22b). This higher level of holiness is because Shabbat unites the body and soul, revealing the holiness of both. On the other hand, in a certain sense Yom Kippur is more spiritual, as we abstain then from all physical pleasures. Not only that, but even if Yom Kippur is on Shabbat we still fast, as fasting is necessary to achieve atonement for the Jewish people.^[2]

07. Sins for Which Yom Kippur Does Not Atone

As we have seen, on Yom Kippur, the holy root of the souls of Israel are revealed, and purity and atonement spread from this spiritual root to its branches. The more a person repents, the purer he becomes, and the greater the atonement granted for his sins and transgressions. However, there are sins that cannot be completely rectified by the purity of the root of the soul and the repentance of Yom Kippur. As long as these sins are not fully rectified, the person will need to be punished for them, whether in this world or the next (1:7 above).

Therefore, someone who committed a sin for which one is liable to bring a sin offering or a guilt offering must offer the sacrifice even if he fully repents and undergoes Yom Kippur (except for an asham talui; see n. 4 below). Similarly, if someone commits a sin whose punishment is lashes or death (assuming that he transgresses in front of kosher witnesses after being duly warned), he would be punished by the beit din even if he repents fully on Yom Kippur (Keritot 25b-26a; MT, Laws of Sin and Guilt Offerings 3:9). Repentance is effective in repairing his soul, but the atonement or punishment prescribed by the Torah must be upheld; if they are not carried out by the beit din, he will be punished, either in this world or the next. Nowadays, when we can neither offer sacrifices nor mete out punishments in a beit din, the way to rectify sins is to give charity and study Torah in amounts corresponding to the weightiness of the sins committed. In the past, many people also fasted for many days, commensurate with their sins, but nowadays the accepted ruling is to give charity and study Torah instead.

The Mishna states, “Yom Kippur atones for sins that are between man and God; however, Yom Kippur does not atone for interpersonal sins until the offender has placated his friend” (Yoma 85b). This is derived from the verse, “For on this day, atonement shall be made for you to purify you of all your sins; you shall purify yourselves before the Lord” (Vayikra 16:30), which can alternatively be translated, “For on this day atonement shall be made for you to purify you of all your sins before the Lord; purify yourselves.” In other words, it is specifically sins “before the Lord” that are forgiven. Thus, when a sin is against the divine glory, complete repentance before God rectifies it entirely. But when a person is the victim of a sin, if the person has not been placated, the sin remains. Repentance on Yom Kippur helps only to mitigate its severity, transforming the sin from knowing to unknowing and from unknowing to the product of duress. This purifies the root of the soul, but the damage to the branches of the soul remains as long as one has not placated his friend.

The same mishna states, “One who declares, ‘I will sin and then repent; I will sin and then repent’ is not given the opportunity to repent. ‘I will sin and Yom Kippur will atone’ – Yom Kippur will not atone” (Yoma 85b). The reason is clear: Repentance is meant to help a person repair what he has damaged. When a person sins because he is relying upon repenting afterward, the idea of repentance actually leads to his feeling free to sin. Therefore, “he is not given the opportunity to repent,” meaning, it will be difficult for him to motivate himself to correct his deeds. Nevertheless, if despite the difficulty, he makes every effort to repent, his repentance will be accepted.

Similarly, when a person sins because he is relying upon Yom Kippur to atone for him, he demonstrates that he does not understand the profound holiness of the day. Yom Kippur is meant to reveal the good root of his soul. Thinking about it is supposed to prevent a person from sinning. But this person has it backward – thinking of Yom Kippur leads him to sin more. Therefore, it doesn’t matter how much he prays and cries; since he subverts the essential sanctity of the day, Yom Kippur does not atone for him. Only if he makes every effort to repent, understands the magnitude of his mistake, and resolves not to sin again, will his repentance be accepted.

08. The View of R. Yehuda Ha-Nasi

As we have seen, Yom Kippur reveals the inviolable connection between God and Israel. This connection leads to communal atonement and purification, even without repentance. As a result, the world continues to exist and advances toward redemption. However, the Gemara records a dispute as to how this relates to the atonement of the individual. R. Yehuda Ha-Nasi maintains that an individual is forgiven without repentance, while the other Sages maintain that repentance is a prerequisite for Yom Kippur’s atonement (Yoma 85b).

According to R. Yehuda Ha-Nasi, the fundamental atonement of Yom Kippur extends to each and every Jew, even if he neither repents nor observes the day. Since he has undergone the day, he is absolved from punishments such as karet or death at the hands of heaven. (See Keritot 7a.) This is because the atonement is the result of divine fiat, rooted in the eternal connection between God and His people Israel. Therefore, even if someone declares that he does not want Yom Kippur to atone for him, he is forgiven against his will. For a person cannot say to his king, “I do not want you to rule over me” (y. Shevu’ot 1:6). God has decided to forgive the sins of the Jews on Yom Kippur, and so it is.

However, it is clear that even according to R. Yehuda Ha-Nasi, when a person sins, he damages his soul. This prevents him from drawing close to God and taking pleasure in the glory of the Shekhina in this world and the next. The extent of the distance depends on the extent of the damage. In the absence of repentance or suffering, this damage is not erased even after he undergoes Yom Kippur.

It is important to be aware that there are three types of suffering in this world: The first type of suffering is meant to purify a person and purge him of his sins. The second type of suffering is meant as a wake-up call, encouraging a person to repent and directing him toward the right path. Fundamentally, these types of suffering are motivated by love. R. Yehuda Ha-Nasi and the other Sages do not disagree about them. R. Yehuda Ha-Nasi agrees that these types of suffering will not be obviated by Yom Kippur, since their purpose is to help people. The more a person purifies himself by repenting on Yom Kippur, the more able he is to avoid these, as they are rendered unnecessary.

The third type of suffering is meant to punish and stems from divine justice. God created good and evil. He created forces of good, empowering them to reward those who perform mitzvot, and He created forces of evil, empowering them to punish sinners. There are many detailed rules pertaining to the punishments, all in accordance with the severity of the sin. It is true that these punishments also purify a person and may even direct him toward the proper path. However, their primary purpose is to carry out justice, punishing sinners who damage the world and the honor of heaven. Even though sometimes a delay in punishment would allow a person time to repent and correct his failings, that is irrelevant if the rules of justice demand that he be punished. What is good for him is no longer part of the equation. Rather, he is punished in accordance with strict justice.

According to R. Yehuda Ha-Nasi, this type of suffering is obviated on Yom Kippur even without repentance. If a person is deserving of heavenly punishment, undergoing Yom Kippur erases it. He can turn over a new leaf, and he is not held accountable for his earlier sins. He is subject only to those punishments that will be most helpful for his correction and purification – about which there is no disagreement between R. Yehuda Ha-Nasi and the other Sages.

Additionally, R. Yehuda Ha-Nasi agrees that if someone denies one of the three fundamentals of faith, Yom Kippur does not atone for him and does not save him from the third type of suffering, as we read, “Because he has spurned the word of the Lord and violated His commandment, that person shall be cut off – he bears his guilt” (Bamidbar 15:31). Those deemed to be denying fundamentals of faith are: A) One who casts off the yoke of heaven, meaning he denies the God of Israel; B) one who misrepresents the Torah, meaning he dares to falsify and degrade it; C) one who violates the covenant of circumcision, meaning he does not circumcise his son or tries to hide the fact that he himself is circumcised. In other words, Yom Kippur does not atone for someone who denies God, misrepresents the Torah, or denies his Jewish identity (Yoma 85b; Shevu’ot 13a).^[3]

09. The View of the Sages

According to the other Sages, even though Yom Kippur atones for the Jewish people as a whole, it does not exempt individuals from the punishment they deserve. Even if it is possible that a delay in the punishment would allow a person time to repent and correct his deeds, if he fails to repent on Yom Kippur, he will feel the full force of the law. However, even these Sages agree that a person does not have to achieve perfect repentance for Yom Kippur to atone. The fact that on Yom Kippur he refrained from melakha, fasted, prayed, and showed his inner wish to be good and not sin, is enough to protect him from the punishment due to him according to the letter of the law (3:5 above, based on Shlah, Masekhet Rosh Ha-shana, Torah Or §17).

The Rishonim rule that the halakha follows the Sages, and Yom Kippur atones only for those who repent. Nevertheless, if we truly internalize R. Yehuda Ha-Nasi’s words concerning the inviolable connection between God and the soul of each and every Jew, Yom Kippur will inspire us to repent out of love.^[4]

10. Levels of Atonement

Achieving complete atonement, the type that cleanses a person of sin, leaving no trace, is a complex matter that depends on the severity of the sin and the quality of the repentance. For example, complete repentance on its own can fully atone for failure to fulfill a positive mitzva. However, for serious transgressions that involve desecration of God’s name, atonement requires a combination of repentance, Yom Kippur, suffering, and death.

Regular repentance is motivated by fear – fear of being punished or fear of losing one’s reward, in this world or the next. This type of repentance transforms knowing sins into unknowing ones. However, in order to erase the impression left by unknowing sins, atonement must include regret, sorrow, and suffering in accordance with the severity of the sin. In the times of the Rishonim, many people would undertake fasts and ascetic practices to ensure complete atonement. The more a person studies Torah diligently, gives charity, and performs acts of kindness, the fewer tribulations he must undergo to cleanse himself of sin (Sha’arei Teshuva 4:11). One who desecrated God’s name must make a point of sanctifying it and bringing greater glory to God (Sha’arei Teshuva 1:47 and 4:16).

A higher level of repentance is motivated by love. It is done out of love for God, identification with divine ideals, and concern for the Jewish people. This repentance is accomplished by studying Torah in order to repair the world by its light; giving charity and acting kindly in order to enable the poor to be self-reliant; settling Eretz Yisrael; sanctifying God’s name; and doing everything possible to draw the Shekhina and redemption closer. When one repents from love, even his unknowing sins become merits, so his atonement is complete. As a rule, though, even someone who repents from love does not attain its highest level, so he must still repent out of fear, which involves some mortification. It is better for one to accept upon himself that these mortifications will come through toiling in Torah and making do with little, in order to give more charity.^[5]

11. The Jubilee, Repentance, and Freedom

Repentance frees a person from the chains that bind him, allowing his soul to express itself freely. For repentance is a striving for divine freedom and liberation that is free from any enslavement (Orot Ha-teshuva 5:5 and 7:4).

In the natural way of things, a person follows his evil inclinations – pursuing lust and arrogance, anger and jealousy, sloth and fame – because they offer him quick gratification. Once he starts being drawn to them, he becomes enslaved to them. True, his inner self still longs for truth and goodness, but it is very difficult for him to actualize them, because he is already addicted to fulfilling his urges. His soul is chained and made to suffer.

By repenting, one is liberated, one can express his true desires. The soul is freed from the bonds of the evil inclination and begins to illuminate his path. His life force is strengthened. This is what our Sages mean when they say, “The only free person is one who studies Torah” (Avot 6:2). For the Torah guides a person on the true and right path. Through it, one can actualize all his positive aspirations: the divine ideals for which his soul longs.

Thus, Yom Kippur is also a day of freedom, as we see from the mitzva of the Jubilee (Yovel). In the natural course of events, sometimes people are forced to sell their land, whether due to laziness, lust, or other troubles. Sometimes they are even forced to sell themselves into slavery. The Torah teaches people to be industrious and not allow themselves to give in to their desires and become enslaved to debt. Nevertheless, some people are overcome by their urges. They mortgage their future for a fleeting present, and ultimately, they sell their fields and enslave themselves. God has pity on them and even more so on their families, so He gave us the mitzva of the Jubilee, the fiftieth year, when all Jewish slaves go free and all fields return to their original owners. We read:

You shall count off seven weeks of years – seven times seven years – so that the period of seven weeks of years gives you a total of forty-nine years. Then you shall blast the shofar loud; in the seventh month, on the tenth day of the month – the Day of Atonement – you shall sound the shofar throughout your land, and you shall hallow the fiftieth year. You shall proclaim freedom throughout the land for all its inhabitants. It shall be a Jubilee for you: each of you shall return to his holding and each of you shall return to his family…. In this year of Jubilee, you shall return, each to his estate. (Vayikra 25:8-13)

The day that the Torah sets for slaves to go free and for fields to return to their ancestral owners is Yom Kippur, as we read, “Then you shall blast the shofar loud; in the seventh month, on the tenth day of the month.” Rambam codifies this:

In the period between Rosh Ha-shana and Yom Kippur, slaves did not yet go home, nor were they enslaved to their owners, nor did the fields return to their owners. Rather, slaves ate and drank and rejoiced while wearing crowns (of freedom). Once Yom Kippur arrived and the beit din blew the shofar, slaves were sent home and fields were returned to their owners. (MT, Laws of Shemita and Yovel 10:14)

As a commemoration of the shofar-blasts of the Jubilee, the custom in every Jewish community is to blow the shofar at the end of Yom Kippur (R. Hai Gaon). For each year, on Yom Kippur, Israel experiences liberation, as on the Jubilee. Our freedom from enslavement to evil urges is akin to the freedom of emancipated slaves. The return of the body to the soul is like the return of a field to its owner. When a person gives in to his urges, the body disconnects from the soul, enslaves itself to foreign desires, and squanders its strength on alien transgressions. But through the repentance of Yom Kippur, the body is restored to the soul, and they can rejoice together in the joy of a mitzva as they reveal God’s word in the world. Through this, a person attains a good and blessed life.

12. Matchmaking

The Mishna describes a remarkable Yom Kippur custom during Temple times:

There were no happier days for the Jews than the fifteenth of Av and Yom Kippur. On those days, the young women of Jerusalem would go out in borrowed white clothes in order to avoid embarrassing those who did not own any…. They would dance in the vineyards, saying: “Young man! Please look and choose someone. Do not look at beauty, look at the family. ‘Grace is deceptive, beauty is illusory; it is for her fear of the Lord that a woman is to be praised. Extol her for the fruit of her hand, and let her works praise her in the gates’ (Mishlei 31:30-31).” (Ta’anit 26b)

At first glance, this seems strange. How can it be that on this awe-inspiring, holy fast day, people were matchmaking? On further reflection, it is not so strange. The marital bond is sacred. Our Sages say that the Shekhina dwells with a husband and wife who are faithful to each other (Sota 17a). Through their loyalty and love, they express God’s unity. This is why God allows His name to be erased in order to reconcile husband and wife (Nedarim 66b). Similarly, Arizal states that the mitzva to “love your fellow as yourself” (Vayikra 19:18), which R. Akiva calls “a great principle of the Torah” (Sifra ad loc.), reaches its ultimate fulfillment within marriage.

Furthermore, the union of a married couple corresponds to the supernal union of God and the Jewish people, as we read, “As a bridegroom rejoices over his bride, so will your God rejoice over you” (Yeshayahu 62:5). R. Akiva said, “No other day was as precious as the day the Jews were given Shir Ha-shirim. For all of the Writings are holy, but Shir Ha-shirim is the holy of holies” (Tanḥuma Tetzaveh §5). Similarly, the keruvim (cherubim) on the top of the ark in the Kodesh Ha-kodashim were in the form of a male and female being intimate. This was to teach that holiness does not constrict life but intensifies it. When the Jews stopped doing what God wanted, the keruvim turned their backs on each other and faced outward (Bava Batra 99a).

These ideas lie at the root of the custom of young Jewish men and women seeking their match on Yom Kippur. They drew upon the unity of God and the Jewish people to find their own union and love, to create holy Jewish homes. Accordingly, married couples must repent on Yom Kippur for any failure to love and pleasure each other properly. True, on the physical level, a couple must separate on Yom Kippur, as they do when the wife is a nidda (9:7 below). Nevertheless, on the spiritual level, their connection is stronger than usual, due to the holiness of the day. This concept is reflected in the laws pertaining to the Kohen Gadol serving in the Temple on Yom Kippur. On the one hand, he was required to separate from his wife for a week before Yom Kippur. On the other hand, an unmarried kohen was not allowed to serve on Yom Kippur at all (10:4 below).

The young women would wait to dance in the vineyards until after the scapegoat was cast away. Since the sins of Israel were forgiven then, it was an especially joyous time. This custom was appropriate at a time when the Shekhina dwelled with the people, and the Temple linked heaven and earth. But since the destruction of the Temple, heaven and earth are not as close together. If people today engaged in matchmaking on Yom Kippur, they would miss out on the primary expression of the day’s holiness.^[6]

Nevertheless, it is still proper on Yom Kippur for all singles to pray for a good match, as the very holiness of the day can help in their quest. Often, negative character traits such as arrogance and lust prevent people from finding their true match. On Yom Kippur, when the pure soul is revealed, a person can see his life goals more clearly. He can better determine what type of person would suit him best, and with whom he would be able to build a home of Torah and mitzvot, so that together they will add life and joy to the world.

01. Honoring the Day

Like Shabbat and holidays, Yom Kippur is called “a sacred occasion” (mikra kodesh), as we read, “The tenth day of this seventh month is the Day of Atonement. It shall be a sacred occasion for you” (Vayikra 23:27). With regard to Shabbat and festivals, this means enjoying and honoring them, as our Sages say (Sifra, Emor 12:4), “How does one sanctify a festival? With food, drink, and clean clothes” (codified in MT, Laws of Yom Tov 6:16; SA OḤ 529:1). However, we cannot say the same for Yom Kippur, when we must fast. Thus, our Sages (Shabbat 119a) expound the verse “The Lord’s holy day (should be) honored” (Yeshayahu 58:13) as referring to Yom Kippur. “There is no eating and no drinking on it, so the Torah says: Honor it with clean clothes” (Rif; Rosh on Yoma 8:9).

Many people, men and women, wear fine, elegant white clothes on Yom Kippur, imitating the ministering angels. On Yom Kippur we are not seduced by temptations of the flesh; we are sin-free, like the angels. Women, even those who do not wear white, avoid wearing jewelry and fancy clothes on Yom Kippur, due to the dread of impending judgment (Mordekhai; Rema 610:4; MB ad loc. 16-17). Many Ashkenazic men wear a white cloak called a kittel, which, in addition to being angelic, is also similar to a burial shroud. The kittel reminds us of death, leaving us contrite and humble, and inspiring us to repent. A kittel must be removed before using the bathroom, unless one is only urinating (Mateh Ephraim ad loc. 12; MB ad loc. 18).

It is a mitzva to clean the house before Yom Kippur and to cover the table with a nice tablecloth, just as one does before Shabbat (Mordekhai; Rema 610:3; AHS ad loc. 2). There is also a mitzva to take a shower in honor of Yom Kippur, just as one does for Shabbat. Some immerse in a mikveh as well (5:10 above).

It is a mitzva to clean the synagogue and prepare it for Yom Kippur so that it will look its best. There is also a mitzva to leave on all the lights in the synagogue in honor of the day, as we read (Yeshayahu 24:15), “Therefore, honor the Lord with lights” (SA 610:3-4; MB ad loc. 9).

On Tisha Be-Av, which is a mournful day commemorating the destruction of the Temple, we make a point of not smelling aromatic spices (SA 559:7; SHT 556:1). In contrast, on Yom Kippur some make a point of smelling aromatic spices and reciting the berakha over them. Since Yom Kippur is a festival, there is a mitzva to honor the day in any permissible way.

02. The Prohibition of Melakha and the Mitzva to Desist from Work

There is a positive mitzva to refrain from melakha on Yom Kippur, as we read, “It shall be a Shabbat of complete rest for you” (Vayikra 23:32). If one works on Yom Kippur, not only is he not fulfilling the positive mitzva to desist from melakha, but he is also violating the negative mitzva, “You shall do no melakha throughout that day” (ibid. 23:28). Since Yom Kippur is referred to as Shabbat, the thirty-nine categories of melakha prohibited on Shabbat are also prohibited on Yom Kippur. It is only regarding punishment that there is a difference between Yom Kippur and Shabbat. While someone who knowingly undertakes melakha (in the presence of witnesses after being duly warned) is subject to stoning on Shabbat, he is subject to karet on Yom Kippur. (One who unknowingly does melakha on either day must offer a sin offering.) Thus we read (ibid. v. 30), “And whoever does any melakha throughout that day, I will cause that person to perish from among his people” (MT, Laws of Resting on the Tenth 1:1-2; SA 611:2).

As on Shabbat, the mitzva to rest on Yom Kippur includes an obligation not to treat it as a weekday. That is, in addition to refraining from melakha, one is meant to refrain from doing burdensome activities. One must not open a store or move heavy items in preparation for weekday activities. Even though one who does so is not engaging in one of the thirty-nine melakhot, he is negating the mitzva to rest on Yom Kippur, as it is written, “It shall be a Shabbat of complete rest for you” (Vayikra 23:32). The mitzva is to preserve the sanctity and character of the day. One’s entire demeanor is meant to be different than on a weekday (Peninei Halakha: Shabbat 22:1). In general, all laws of Shabbat apply to Yom Kippur, and there is the additional mitzva of fasting on Yom Kippur, so it involves a more complete withdrawal from mundane affairs.

03. The Mitzva of Confession (Vidui)

Yom Kippur is a time of forgiveness and atonement, as we read, “For on this day, atonement shall be made for you to purify you of all your sins; you shall purify yourselves before the Lord” (Vayikra 16:30). Therefore, a mitzva is incumbent upon every individual to repent and to confess his sins on this day (MT, Laws of Repentance 2:7).

The process of repentance is completed when a person explicitly verbalizes a confession. As is the case with our mission in this world in general, here too, we must actualize the good intentions present in our thoughts and hearts. Explicit, verbal confession clarifies and crystalizes the thoughts and emotions accompanying repentance. Regret is deeply and keenly felt, and the penitent’s resolution to refrain from sin is reinforced. This is why the Torah commands those bringing an offering to confess their sins, as we read, “Speak to the children of Israel: When a man or woman commits any wrong toward a fellow man, thus breaking faith with the Lord, and that person realizes his guilt, he shall confess the wrong that he has done” (Bamidbar 5:6-7). Similarly, we read, “When he realizes his guilt in any of these matters, he shall confess that wherein he has sinned” (Vayikra 5:5). Just as someone offering a sin offering must confess, so too, any penitent must confess. This is the final step of his repentance (MT, Laws of Repentance 1:1).

Confession should also be practiced all year round. If one sinned unknowingly, he should say “I have sinned” (ḥatati); if he sinned knowingly, he should say “I have done wrong” (aviti); and if he sinned spitefully, he should say “I have rebelled” (pashati). By doing so, he has fulfilled the mitzva of confession, even though he has not detailed specific sins. In general, it is preferable to specify sins, although there are some situations where it is preferable not to do so (SA 607:2; MB ad loc. 5; SHT ad loc. 11; see sections 4-6 below for details).^[1]

04. The Laws of Vidui

During Temple times, the Kohen Gadol confessed on Yom Kippur on behalf of the entire Jewish people, as we read, “Aharon shall lay both his hands upon the head of the live goat and confess over it all the iniquities and transgressions of the Israelites, whatever their sins” (Vayikra 16:21). According to the maḥzor, this was the formula of the vidui:

Please, Lord, Your people, the house of Israel, have sinned, have done wrong, have rebelled before You. Please, by Your name, grant atonement for the sins and for the wrongs and the rebellions that they have sinned, and done wrong, and rebelled before You – Your people, the house of Israel. As it is written in the Torah of Moses Your servant, at the word of Your glory, ‘For on this day, you will be atoned for and made pure of all your sins before the Lord.’”

“Sins” are unknowing, “wrongs” are knowing, and “rebellions” are spiteful. This order is logical, as it is reasonable to ask for forgiveness beginning with the less serious offenses (Yoma 36b; SA 621:5).

With this vidui, the Kohen Gadol fulfilled the mitzva of vidui on behalf of all Israel, even though presumably it was still valuable for each individual to confess his personal sins. An advantage of the Kohen Gadol’s vidui was that it allowed the entire nation to participate in repentance. This made the repentance deeper and more comprehensive. For this reason, after the Temple was destroyed, the Sages ordained that every Jew confess in the plural. During this recitation, each individual should keep in mind his personal sins as well (Yere’im; R. Sa’adia Gaon).

The minimum mandated vidui on Yom Kippur is: “But we have sinned, wronged, and rebelled” (Yoma 87b; MT, Laws of Repentance 2:8; Pri Ḥadash; MB 607:12). Common practice is to add a more extensive list of sins in alphabetical order (R. Amram Gaon):

We have sinned (ashamnu), we have acted treacherously (bagadnu), we have robbed, we have spoken slander. We have acted perversely, we have acted wickedly, we have acted presumptuously, we have been violent, we have framed lies. We have given bad advice, we have deceived, we have scorned, we have rebelled, we have provoked, we have turned away, we have committed iniquity, we have transgressed, we have persecuted, we have been obstinate. We have done wrong, we have corrupted, we have acted abominably, we have strayed, we have led others astray.

We continue with another list of sins, each of which is introduced by the phrase “For the sin we have sinned before You” (al ḥet she-ḥatanu lefanekha). Taking these as a starting point, each ethnic/geographical community has its own version.^[2]

One might ask: How can a righteous person declare, “We have rebelled, we have provoked, we have turned away, we have committed iniquity,” when clearly he did not sin knowingly or rebelliously? How can someone who is careful with other people’s money declare, “We have robbed”? The answer is that the mitzva of vidui on Yom Kippur is communal. Therefore, the Sages ordained that every individual recite his vidui in the plural on behalf of the entire nation, just as the Kohen Gadol confessed on behalf of the entire nation.

Additionally, even if a person himself did not sin, it could be that he bears some responsibility for the sins of family members or friends. Sometimes he was in a position to object to their behavior but did not do so. Other times, he could have inspired them to repent, had he made the effort. It is also possible that had he been a better role model, he would have positively influenced them, so they would not have sinned. Finally, all Jews bear responsibility for one another. We are like one body made up of many parts. Therefore, the sin of any Jew is the responsibility of all. Thus, even the righteous must confess. It cleanses them of their share in the sin and inspires others to repent (Sefer Ḥasidim §601; Arizal; Ben Ish Ḥai, Ki Tisa).

One must stand for the entire vidui, until, “And for the sins for which we incur the four types of capital punishment…King who pardons and forgives” (SA 607:3; MB ad loc. 10). It is proper to bow the head or bend over a little during vidui, to show humility. Some are meticulous and bow more deeply, like we do when reciting the prayer of Modim (Shlah). Others who want to do so but find it difficult to stay bent over for a long time should bow deeply when reciting Ashamnu but just bend slightly when reciting Al Ḥet. It is customary to beat the chest during the recitation of vidui, as if to say, “My heart caused me to sin” (MB 607:11).^[3]

05. The Times of Vidui

Since Yom Kippur is the time of forgiveness, atonement, and acceptance of the Jews’ repentance, and since repentance requires vidui, it is a mitzva to confess as soon as Yom Kippur begins, meaning, at Ma’ariv. However, the Sages were concerned that something might go wrong at the pre-fast meal – someone might get drunk and be unable to confess during Ma’ariv or might choke during the meal and die before confessing. Therefore, they ordained that each person confess at Minḥa, prior to the pre-fast meal. Nevertheless, vidui must be repeated at Ma’ariv on Yom Kippur, as that is still the primary time for vidui and atonement. Despite having confessed at Ma’ariv, we confess again at Shaḥarit, Musaf, Minḥa, and Ne’ila (Yoma 87b). Given that we have just confessed and have not had time to sin, this would seem to be unnecessary. Nevertheless, whenever we stand in prayer before God on Yom Kippur, it is appropriate to confess, as repentance is the mitzva of the day. (This is different from the rest of the year, when even those who confess every day do not do so during the Amida.) Additionally, it is possible that one sinned after Ma’ariv, so he must confess again at Shaḥarit. Similarly, he may have sinned after Shaḥarit, so he must confess during Musaf, and so on. For Yom Kippur continues to atone until the end of the day, when it gets dark (Levush, SAH 607:1).

During each silent Amida, vidui is recited after the conclusion of the berakhot and before the recitation of Elokai Netzor. During the repetition of the Amida, it is recited within the middle berakha (the sanctification of the day). Technically, an individual is not required to confess during the repetition, though he must stand (SA 607:3). However, in practice, the Rishonim write that it is proper for the members of the congregation to recite vidui together with the ḥazan (Ran; Rema) so that everyone recites vidui ten times over the course of the day, corresponding to the ten times that the Kohen Gadol uttered the Tetragrammaton (10:15-16 below). The ten confessions are: one before the fast during the silent Amida of Minḥa, one at night during the Amida of Ma’ariv, and eight more during the four prayer services of the day: Shaḥarit, Musaf, Minḥa, and Ne’ila. In each of these four services, one vidui is recited during the silent Amida and a second is recited during the ḥazan’s repetition. The vidui that we recite during the Seliḥot after the Amida of Ma’ariv does not count, as it is not recited within an Amida (Tur 621; MB ad loc. 2).

According to Ramban, in addition to the confessions recited on Yom Kippur, one must recite the vidui after the pre-fast meal, before dark, so as to start Yom Kippur in a state of repentance. Aḥaronim write that it is proper to follow this stringency (Shlah). However, there is concern that some people will not be able to recite it because they drank during the meal. Therefore, they ordained the recitation of vidui at Minḥa as well, before the meal. The main purpose, however, is to enter Yom Kippur with the right mindset. One may fulfill this vidui by reciting the minimum: “But we have sinned, done wrong, and rebelled.” In practice, two customs have developed to fulfill the stringency right before Yom Kippur: Ashkenazim recite Tefila Zaka, which contains detailed confessions (MB 607:1), while Sephardim recite the poem Lekha Keli Teshukati, which includes confessions. There is an opinion that these prayers must be recited while standing, since they are a type of vidui (Pri Ḥadash). Nevertheless, the custom is to recite them while seated, as be-di’avad one may confess while sitting.

Those who will not attend the synagogue are not obligated to recite ten confessions. During each Amida that they pray, they should recite the appropriate vidui. At least one vidui must be made, as this is an obligation of the day. If at all possible, two confessions should be made, one at the beginning of Yom Kippur and another one at the end, at the time of Ne’ila. (See 6:3 n. 1 above.)

06. Specifying Sins in Vidui

It is better for one to express specific sins he committed, as doing so deepens regret and strengthens repentance. This is the opinion of R. Yehuda b. Bava in the Gemara. He bases it on the confession of Moshe Rabbeinu following the sin of the Golden Calf: “Moshe went back to the Lord and said, ‘Alas, this people is guilty of a great sin in making for themselves a god of gold’” (Shemot 32:31). At the same time, specifying one’s sins, on some level, impinges on the honor of heaven, for the goal of repentance is to minimize the importance of sins, and speaking about sins grants them significance. Additionally, shame over one’s sins is fundamental to repentance, as the Sages say, “If one sins and is ashamed of it, he is forgiven for all his sins” (Berakhot 12b). One who specifies his sins may seem as though he is not ashamed of them. Thus, R. Akiva maintains that one who confesses need not specify his sins, as it says, “Happy is he whose transgression is forgiven, whose sin is covered over” (Tehilim 32:1).

In practice, one can fulfill his obligation to confess without specifying his sins. He can simply declare, “I have sinned, I have wronged, I have rebelled.” Certainly, then, reciting Ashamnu fulfills the obligation. One who knows that specifying his sins will deepen his repentance should specify them silently. For example, if he ate non-kosher food, he should say, “I have eaten non-kosher food” (SA 607:2; Vilna Gaon ad loc.; SHT ad loc. 3).^[4]

There is a disagreement among the Sages as to whether one who confessed his sins the previous Yom Kippur should confess the same sins again (Yoma 86b). Some say, “Of him, Scripture says, ‘As a dog returns to his vomit, so a dullard repeats his folly’ (Mishlei 26:11).” In contrast, R. Eliezer b. Yaakov says, “He is certainly praiseworthy, as we read, ‘For I recognize my transgressions and am ever conscious of my sin’ (Tehilim 51:5).” Shulḥan Arukh rules that one may confess again for sins to which he confessed the previous year (SA 607:4).

Perhaps we can suggest a guideline: If one feels that his repentance is incomplete, and that he has not yet managed to erase the sin from his heart completely, it is better for him to confess again. But if one feels that his repentance is complete and the sin is erased from his heart, it is not appropriate to confess, as doing so displays a lack of faith in the power of repentance. Sometimes a person repents completely and erases a sin from his heart, but a few years later suddenly thinks about it again and is distressed by it. This happens because his repentance was sufficient for his former spiritual stature; no trace of the sin was discernible. However, after he attains a greater, more illuminated spiritual stature, his previous repentance is no longer sufficient to cleanse him of any trace of sin. Therefore, he must confess again to erase the faint but lingering impression of his sin (Tzidkat Ha-tzadik 134:67).

07. Public Vidui

The Gemara (Yoma 86b) raised another important question in the context of vidui: Is it proper for a sinner to confess publicly? On the one hand, we have seen that a person should be ashamed of his sins and not confess them in the presence of others, as it says, “Happy is he whose transgression is forgiven, whose sin is covered over” (Tehilim 32:1). On the other hand, we have learned that a sinner should not try to cover up his crimes. Rather, he should publicly confess them, as it says, “He who covers up his faults will not succeed; he who confesses and gives them up will find mercy” (Mishlei 28:13).

The Gemara records two views. Rav explains that if a sin was committed in private, it should be confessed in private as well, as public confession impinges on the honor of heaven and publicizes that some people brazenly violate Torah commandments. However, if the sin was committed in public, it was a desecration of God’s name. The sinner can only rectify this by confessing publicly, so that the masses know that he repented. This will sanctify God’s name (Sha’arei Teshuva 1:18).

1. Naḥman explains that one should confess interpersonal sins publicly, so that everyone sees that his friend’s honor is important to him, which will also help his efforts to placate his friend. However, one who proudly hurts his friend publicly but asks for forgiveness privately has not repented adequately. In contrast, when sins are between man and God, generally it is preferable to confess privately, to avoid further desecration of God’s name.

In practice, one should consider both factors, namely, God’s honor and his friend’s honor and appeasement. In general, sins between man and God should preferably be confessed privately, though if the sin was committed publicly, in a way that desecrated God’s name, the confession should be public as well, as this restores divine honor. In contrast, interpersonal sins should generally be confessed publicly, as this is a better way for the offender to placate the injured party. However, in cases where a public confession would make things worse (for example, when only the two of them are aware of the offense, or when the injured party would prefer that the whole embarrassing incident be forgotten), clearly it is forbidden for the offender to confess publicly.^[5]

08. The Beginning, End, and Other Relevant Times of Yom Kippur

For all Torah matters, night precedes day, so Yom Kippur begins at night and concludes at the end of the following day. However, it is unclear as to precisely when day ends and night begins. Does the day end when the sun sets and is no longer visible, or when it gets dark enough to see three medium-sized stars? In Eretz Yisrael, the difference between these times is about twenty minutes, with some seasonal variation. The twilight period between shki’a (sunset) and tzeit ha-kokhavim (nightfall) is referred to as bein ha-shemashot. Since the mitzva to refrain from work on Shabbat and Yom Tov is of Torah origin, we are stringent about the timing, in accordance with the well-known principle, “We are stringent in cases of uncertainty about Torah law.” Thus, Shabbat and Yom Tov begin at shki’a and end at tzeit.

There is also a mitzva to extend Shabbat and Yom Tov, meaning to accept the sanctity of the day a little before its starting time and extend it a little past its ending time. Accordingly, it is a mitzva to accept the day’s sanctity a few minutes before shki’a, and to end it a few minutes after tzeit. The custom is to wait about ten minutes past tzeit (SA 608:1; Peninei Halakha: Shabbat 3:1-2). Adding time shows that these days are beloved and very precious to us. Furthermore, by taking mundane moments and transforming them into sacred ones, we show the potential of the mundane. This transformation extends the day’s holiness to all the weekdays and elevates them.^[6]

It is a mitzva to verbally accept the holiness of the day. Women generally accept the sanctity of Yom Kippur when they recite the berakhot over candle lighting, when the day is invoked (see the next section). Men accept the sanctity of the day either upon reciting the berakha of She-heḥeyanu in the synagogue or by verbally accepting Yom Kippur (section 10 below).

One who concludes his pre-fast meal early may continue eating and drinking until he accepts upon himself the holiness of the day. If he was negligent and did not accept it upon himself before shki’a, all the Yom Kippur prohibitions nevertheless go into effect at shki’a (SA 608:1-3). One may accept the holiness of the day as early as plag ha-minḥa, which is about an hour and a quarter before shki’a (MB 608:14; Peninei Halakha: Shabbat 3:2 n. 2).

09. Accepting Yom Kippur: Candle Lighting

There is a mitzva to light candles to honor Yom Kippur, just as there is a mitzva to light candles to honor Shabbat. Though the main reason for lighting Shabbat candles is to enhance and honor the festive meal (which is why the candles are lit where we eat), nevertheless, even on Yom Kippur when eating is forbidden, lighting candles still honors the day. Additionally, it helps promote a peaceful household, as it allows the household members to see where things are and to avoid tripping over them.

In the past, there were places where people did not light candles on Yom Kippur. Since people dress nicely in honor of Yom Kippur, there was concern that candlelight might create a romantic ambience and arouse sexual desire (and sexual relations are forbidden on Yom Kippur). Others said that, on the contrary, it is better to light candles, since sexual relations are forbidden where there is light; the candles actually deter sin. The Sages declared that each community should follow its custom: Where the custom is to light, one should light, and where it is not to light, one should not light (Pesaḥim 53b; SA 610:1). The Sages added that the custom to light is more praiseworthy, so where there is no custom, it is better to enshrine the custom to light (y. Pesaḥim 4:4). This is the longstanding widespread custom.

All the laws that apply to lighting Shabbat candles apply to lighting Yom Kippur candles as well. The usual berakha recited is “Barukh ata Hashem Elokeinu Melekh ha-olam, asher kideshanu be-mitzvotav ve-tzivanu le-hadlik ner shel Yom Ha-Kippurim” (“Blessed are You, Lord our God, King of the universe, Who sanctified us with His mitzvot and commanded us to light Yom Kippur candles”). If Yom Kippur is on Shabbat, the berakha ends “le-hadlik ner shel Shabbat ve-shel Yom Ha-Kippurim” (“to light Shabbat and Yom Kippur candles”).^[7]

Women generally accept the sanctity of the day with candle lighting. Therefore, those who recite the berakha on the candles should recite She-heḥeyanu immediately afterward. Those who recite the berakha before lighting the candles should recite She-heḥeyanu when they finish lighting, because once they have recited She-heḥeyanu they may not perform any further melakha, including candle lighting.

If a woman wishes to drive to synagogue after lighting candles, she should have in mind that she is not accepting the sanctity of the day with her candle lighting. Instead, she should accept the sanctity of the day in the synagogue when the congregation recites She-heḥeyanu (Peninei Halakha: Shabbat 3:3; SSK 44:14).^[8]

10. Accepting Yom Kippur: Kol Nidrei

As we have seen, there is a mitzva to add from the mundane to the sacred and to accept the holiness of the day before shki’a. This acceptance needs to be verbalized. There are two customs regarding when this is done in synagogues, based on when Kol Nidrei is finished.

Some congregations make sure to finish Kol Nidrei before shki’a, as there is a principle that we do not annul vows on Shabbat unless doing so meets some Shabbat need (Shabbat 157a). Since this principle applies to Yom Kippur as well, Kol Nidrei should not recited on Yom Kippur itself. True, some maintain that Kol Nidrei is primarily meant to neutralize future vows (5:12 above) and thus is not considered nullification of vows; nevertheless, others maintain that it is similar to the annulling of vows, and therefore should not be recited once the day has begun (Rema 619:1; MB ad loc. 5). These congregations should accept the day’s holiness with the recitation of She-heḥeyanu at the conclusion of Kol Nidrei. Since this berakha expresses our thanks for this day, it is an appropriate time to accept the day’s sanctity. Even though on other holidays we recite She-heḥeyanu over wine at kiddush, on Yom Kippur, when we do not recite kiddush over wine, we recite She-heḥeyanu at its onset (Eruvin 40b; SA 619:1).

Most congregations, however, finish Kol Nidrei after shki’a, with some even starting it after shki’a. Even though the halakha is that we do not annul vows on Shabbat, when it meets a Shabbat need it is permitted. Since the recitation of Kol Nidrei is meant to cleanse us of the sin of unfulfilled vows, it meets a Yom Kippur need. (See Shabbat 157a; SA 341:1.) These congregations must accept the day’s holiness before shki’a to fulfill the mitzva of extending the day’s sanctity. To ensure that people do not forget to fulfill the mitzva, the gabbai should announce: “We hereby accept upon ourselves the sanctity of Yom Kippur.” Sometimes the ḥazan thinks he will reach She-heḥeyanu before shki’a, but during the recitation of Kol Nidrei it becomes clear that he will not. In such a case, he should pause before shki’a to announce that the holiness of the day is being accepted, and then continue his recitation.^[9]

11. Ma’ariv

The Yom Kippur prayers begin with the removal of two Torah scrolls from the ark. Two prominent members of the congregation carry the scrolls to the bima. The ḥazan stands between them and declares, “With the agreement of God and of the community, in the heavenly council, and in the council of man, we permit praying with transgressors.” Some congregations take out only one Torah scroll, while others take out more than two. There are also slight variations in the formulation of the declaration. Each congregation should follow its custom (SA 619:1 and commentaries).

This opening declaration expresses a theme of Yom Kippur. On Yom Kippur, the holy soul within each Jew is manifest. Even people who act sinfully all year long – pariahs in the eyes of both heaven and earth, with whom it is inappropriate to pray – are invited to join the congregation. Just as we judge these sinners favorably and treat them with benevolence and love, so we hope that God judges us favorably and showers us with His love and benevolence.

The Sages state, “Any fast in which the sinners of Israel do not participate is not deemed a fast. For though galbanum smells bad, it is nonetheless listed by Scripture as one of the spices of the incense” (Keritot 6b). Every Jew has his own divine spark, so if even one Jew is missing, the entire nation is lacking. Therefore, when sinners join the prayers, sanctifying God’s name, the Jewish people are united and become rooted in the land.

Following the declaration, Kol Nidrei is recited. It releases us from the chains of vows or obligations that we were unable to fulfill and ensures that they will not impede our repentance on Yom Kippur.^[10]

We then recite verses about forgiveness, expressing the theme of the day. This is followed by She-heḥeyanu and the return of the Torah scrolls to the ark.

When the Torah scrolls are carried, first to the bima and later back to the ark, many people lovingly kiss them, intending this to serve as a request for forgiveness and atonement for any disrespect they may have shown to the holy Torah or its mitzvot.

In many congregations, the rabbi delivers a Kol Nidrei sermon before Ma’ariv that focuses on character development, inspiration, and repentance (Mateh Ephraim 619:9).

Even though normally a talit is not worn at Ma’ariv, on Yom Kippur it is customarily worn by all who wear a talit for Shaḥarit daily. When putting on the talit, one should focus on remembering all the mitzvot through the tzitzit, on how they shield every part of our souls from external evils, and on how God will spread divine peace upon us. The talit should be put on before shki’a so that the berakha may be recited over it. One who puts on a talit after shki’a should not recite the berakha (SA and Rema 18:1; MB ad loc. 7).

It is proper to study Torah after Ma’ariv. There is a special mitzva to learn Torah on every holiday, and certainly on Yom Kippur. People should make every effort to set aside time to study then. Since the vast majority of the day is dedicated to prayer, the best time to study is after Ma’ariv (Peninei Halakha: Festivals 1:5-6; MB 619:16).

We will not go into detail here about the different prayer formulations, as these can be easily found in the maḥzorim of the various communities. We will focus on prayer laws and customs which express the meaning of the day.

12. Barukh Shem Kevod Malkhuto

The daily mitzva of accepting the yoke of heaven is fulfilled primarily by declaiming the verse, “Hear, O Israel! The Lord is our God, the Lord is one” (Devarim 6:4). We immediately follow this with the quiet recitation of the sentence, “Blessed be the name of His glorious kingdom forever and ever (Barukh shem kevod malkhuto le-olam va-ed).” Even though this sentence does not appear in the portion of Shema, or in the Torah at all, the Sages ordained its silent recitation (Peninei Halakha: Prayer 15:7 n. 1). The Talmud recounts the origin of this sentence: Before our patriarch Yaakov died, he gathered all his sons around him and wanted to reveal to them the end of days, but the Divine Presence left him. He said to his sons, “Perhaps one of you is not worthy. After all, Avraham had Yishmael, and Yitzḥak had Esav. Is that why I cannot reveal the end to you?” They responded by declaring unanimously, “‘Hear, O Israel! The Lord is our God, the Lord is one.’ Just as the one God alone is in your heart, so too, the one God alone is in our heart.” At that point Yaakov said, “Blessed be the name of His glorious kingdom forever and ever.” This story posed a dilemma to the Sages: What to do? Should we recite the sentence? It does not appear in the Torah! Yet how can we not recite it? Our patriarch Yaakov said it! Therefore, they ordained that it be recited quietly. “This is like a princess who smelled food stuck to the bottom of the pot (and craved them). If she were to admit to the craving, she would embarrass herself; if she were to say nothing, she would miss out. So her servants started sneaking them to her” (Pesaḥim 56a).

Another tradition maintains that Moshe Rabbeinu ordained this recitation. When he ascended to heaven, he heard the ministering angels praising God by saying, “Blessed be the name of His glorious kingdom forever and ever.” Upon his descent, Moshe ordained that the Jews recite it quietly. The question was raised: Why did he not ordain that they recite it aloud? A parable was offered in response: To what can this be compared? To a confidant of the king who stole a very nice cloak from the royal palace and gave it to his wife, saying, “Do not wear this in public; only at home.” Only on Yom Kippur, when Israel is as pure as the ministering angels, may they recite it aloud (Devarim Rabba 2:36).

To understand the meaning of these ideas, we must first explain two levels of faith in one God. The first statement, the Shema, expresses the highest level of absolute unification, referred to as yiḥud elyon (“higher unification”). At this level, every aspect and detail unites to reveal God. The second statement, Barukh shem kevod, expresses the plane which came into being after the world’s creation, referred to as yiḥud taḥton (“lower unification”). This involves acceptance of the yoke of heaven based on God’s manifestation in this world, where every creature and every aspect has a real place; God gives them all life and rules over them in accordance with their deeds. This is called the revelation of His name (shem) and kingship (malkhut). That is, His name and His governance are manifest in the world, but not His essence. If He would reveal His essence, all of creation would be annulled and melt away before His great light. (See Tanya, Sha’ar Ha-yiḥud Ve-ha’emuna.)

The higher level of faith is extremely lofty, revealed only at the root of the soul and only at times of self-sacrifice. Accordingly, we are commanded to tap into yiḥud elyon only twice a day, with the recitation of Shema. The Sages ordained pairing it with yiḥud taḥton, which acknowledges God’s manifestation within this diverse world. (See Nefesh Ha-ḥayim 3.) Yiḥud taḥton is very precious to God, as the purpose of creation is for God to be recognized within this material world, with all its beauty and glory, colors and sounds, urges and inclinations. Thus, the ministering angels praise God with the amazing paean, “Blessed be the name of His glorious kingdom forever and ever.” However, saying it out loud is improper, because alongside the positives of revealing the Divine Presence in this world, there are also negatives – evil impulses that can draw us to sin. Therefore, one must first connect to yiḥud elyon and only then quietly recite the praise of yiḥud taḥton, to avoid the temptations of this world.

Only on Yom Kippur, as we fast and desist from occupation with our bodily needs, to the extent that we become like ministering angels, impervious to the evil inclination, can we utter Barukh shem kevod aloud, knowing that we are privileged to sanctify His name in this world. Even though we sometimes stumble into sin, on Yom Kippur it is revealed that ultimately, we draw down His light into this world, in all its complexity. As a result, God judges the Jews with love and mercy. (See Derekh Hashem 4:4:6-7.)

13. Torah Reading and Pledges

After Shaḥarit, two Torah scrolls are removed from the ark. From the first scroll we read the description of the Kohen Gadol’s avoda on Yom Kippur, which is found in the portion of Aḥarei Mot (Vayikra 15). Six people are called up to the Torah. The number of people called up to the Torah for an aliya changes in accordance with the holiness of the day. On Yom Tov, when melakha is forbidden but food preparation is permitted, five people are called up. On Yom Kippur, when all melakha is prohibited, six people are called up. On Shabbat, when all melakha is prohibited and the punishment for desecration is greater, seven people are called up. If Yom Kippur is on Shabbat, seven people are called up (Megilla 21a, 22b; SA 621:1).^[11]

The maftir is read from the second Torah scroll. It is taken from the portion of Pinḥas and deals with the additional (“musaf”) sacrifices offered on Yom Kippur (Bamidbar 29:7-11). The haftara is from Yeshayahu (57:14-58:14), which is an appropriate choice because the prophet exhorts the people to repent, and the verses mention resting on Shabbat and Yom Kippur.

At Minḥa there are three aliyot, and we read a section of the Torah dealing with prohibited sexual relations (Vayikra 18). It is meant to inspire the people to repent for and refrain from these extremely tempting but very serious transgressions that impair our holiness. The haftara is the Book of Yona, which teaches us about divine providence, from which no one can hide. It also teaches us about the great power of repentance, which is effective even when incomplete, as God does not wish to punish sinners (Megilla 31a; SA 621:1).

On Yom Kippur, it is customary to pledge money to the poor and to those dedicated to Torah study, in order to elevate the souls of parents and family members who have passed away. For the dead also achieve atonement on Yom Kippur when charity is given on their behalf (Mordekhai; SA and Rema 622:4). This is why the day is called Yom Ha-kippurim (in the plural), as it atones for both the living and the dead. But haven’t those who have died already been judged? How can charity help them? When their children and family members are inspired to donate money and do good deeds in their memory, it shows that the departed souls continue to have a positive influence on the world. Therefore, they earn the right to be judged again in the heavenly court, taking into account the additional merits they have accrued.^[12]

14. Bowing During Musaf

During Musaf, it is customary to bow down at various points during the description of the Yom Kippur avoda (Temple service), just as the kohanim and the spectators in the Temple courtyard bowed and fell to the ground when the Kohen Gadol uttered the Tetragrammaton. As we will see (10:15-16), the Kohen Gadol uttered it ten times: nine of them in the course of three confessions, and the final one when he announced which goat was for God. The three confessions were on behalf of himself and his wife, on behalf of his fellow priests, and on behalf of the nation. Nowadays, the general custom is to bow four times during the prayer service. We bow once during the descriptions of each of the three confessions. The timing of the fourth bow, however, is the subject of dispute. Sephardim bow when they mention the goat for God (Beit Yosef; see 10:9 below). Ashkenazim bow when reciting “we bow” (“va-anaḥnu kor’im”) in Aleinu, preceding the description of the Kohen Gadol’s avoda (Raavya; Rivash; Rema 622:4). Yemenites do not bow at all during Musaf.

There are three types of bows: prostration (hishtaḥavaya gemura), in which a person lies flat on the ground with hands and feet outspread; kida, a deep bow in which a person remains standing but bows his head all the way to the ground; and keri’a, when one first kneels and then bends forward until his face reaches the ground (Berakhot 34b; Shevu’ot 16b). Nowadays, most people do keri’a, while some do hishtaḥavaya.

It is customary to place something on the ground as a barrier between the floor and the worshipper’s face. This is because it is forbidden to bow on a stone floor, as we read, “You shall not place figured stones in your land to worship upon” (Vayikra 26:1). The reason for the prohibition may be that idolaters would worship nature and bow to stones in an attempt to become one with them. The Torah forbids bowing on stone so that no alien ideas infiltrate our prayers. Only in the Temple, where it was clear that all creations – animate and inanimate – were subservient to God, yearned for Him, and bowed to Him alone, was it permitted to bow on a stone floor (Sefer Ha-ḥinukh §349).

The Torah prohibition applies when two conditions are met: the person is lying prostrate, and his head is on a stone floor. The Sages extend the prohibition and forbid bowing when either one of these conditions is met. Thus, hishtaḥavaya is prohibited even on a dirt floor, and even kida and keri’a are forbidden on a stone floor. For this reason, people spread something as a barrier between the floor and their heads (Rema 131:8).^[13]

15. The Meaning of Bowing

A person’s deepest desire is to draw close to God and to thank Him for all His goodness. But since God is so exalted and mighty, great and awesome, one becomes overwhelmed and awestruck when confronting His tremendous grandeur. He naturally bows and prostrates himself in self-negation before God. As we have seen, there are three types of bowing. Each has its own significance.

Prostration (hishtaḥavaya) means lying prone with one’s hands and feet extended, expressing absolute self-effacement before God. This is not a self-effacement of non-existence, but a self-effacement born of clinging to God, through which one can draw down blessing upon himself from the Source of life. King David frequently bowed to God, thanking Him for His help, as we read, “But I, through Your abundant kindness, enter Your house; I bow down in awe at Your holy Temple” (Tehilim 5:8). And similarly, “I bow toward Your holy Temple and praise Your name for Your kindness and faithfulness, because You have exalted Your name, Your word, above all. When I called, You answered me, You inspired me with courage…. High though the Lord is, He sees the lowly…” (ibid. 138:2-8).

When performing kida, one remains standing but bends his head to the ground, indicating profound submission. Even though he remains standing, he is bent double in total submission.

Keri’a involves falling to one’s knees and bending forward so his face is on the ground. It is a combination of prostration and kida, of self-effacement and submission. As in prostration, one’s entire body is near the ground; like in kida, one bends in submission to his Creator.

The Sages tell us that good things happen as a result of prostration:

Avraham returned unharmed from Mount Moriah together with Yitzḥak only in the merit of his prostration, as we read, “We will worship (ve-nishtaḥaveh) and we will return to you” (Bereishit 22:5). Israel was redeemed from slavery only in the merit of their prostration, as we read, “When they heard that the Lord had taken note of the Israelites and that He had seen their plight, they bowed low in homage (ya-yikdu va-yishtaḥavu)” (Shemot 4:31). The Torah was given only in the merit of prostration, as we read, “Then He said to Moshe, ‘Come up to the Lord, with Aharon, Nadav and Avihu, and seventy elders of Israel, and bow low from afar’” (ibid. 24:1). Ḥanna was remembered only in the merit of prostration, as we read, “And they bowed low there before the Lord” (1 Shmuel 1:28). Only in the merit of prostration will the exiles will be gathered in, as we read, “And on that day, a great ram’s horn shall be sounded; and the strayed who are in the land of Assyria and the expelled who are in the land of Egypt shall come and worship (ve-hishtaḥavu) the Lord on the holy mount in Jerusalem” (Yeshayahu 27:13). The Temple will be rebuilt only in the merit of prostration, as we read, “Exalt the Lord our God and bow down to His footstool; He is holy!” (Tehilim 99:5). The dead will be brought back to life only in the merit of prostration, as we read, “Come, let us bow down and kneel (nishtaḥaveh ve-nikhra’a), bend the knee before the Lord our Maker” (ibid. 95:6). (Bereishit Rabba 56:6)

All who entered the Temple courtyard would prostrate themselves before God. (See m. Midot 2:3.) When the daily offering was brought and Levi’im sang and blew the trumpets, the people standing in the courtyard prostrated themselves (m. Tamid 7:3).

When a person repents and confesses before God, it is proper that he prostrate himself, following the example of Moshe who prostrated himself when he prayed to God to forgive Israel’s sins (Bamidbar 14:5, 16:22; Devarim 9:25). For this reason, the Jews standing in the courtyard would prostrate themselves when the Kohen Gadol uttered the Tetragrammaton during the Yom Kippur confessions (Yoma 66a).

Following this line of thought, the Sages ordained that people bow five times during every Amida. This bowing is done while standing but bending deeply at the waist – similar to kida (Peninei Halakha: Prayer 17:6). It was also customary to prostrate oneself after the Amida, while confessing and offering supplications to God. This became known as Nefilat Apayim (“falling on the face”) and was a precursor to today’s Taḥanun (MT, Laws of Prayer 5:1, 13-14; Tur OḤ 131; Peninei Halakha: Prayer 21:1).

However, several concerns led to the discontinuation of the custom of actually “falling on the face.” On the halakhic level, besides the problem of prostration on a stone floor, there is an additional concern as well. A prominent person is permitted to “fall on the face” only when he is certain that God will respond, as He did to Yehoshua bin Nun (Megilla 22b; SA 131:8), and who can be certain of this? However, the primary concern is based on Zohar. It speaks extensively about the power of Nefilat Apayim, during which the supplicant must truly devote himself to God and see himself as if he is dead. It continues:

This must be done with intense concentration; then God is merciful and forgives his sins. Fortunate is the person who knows how to appeal to and worship his Master willingly and intentionally. Woe is to one who tries to appeal to his Master when his heart is distant and unwilling. He is the subject of the verse, “Yet they deceived Him with their speech, lied to Him with their words; their hearts were inconstant toward Him” (Tehilim 78:36-37). If the person says, “O Lord, I set my hope on You” (ibid. 25:1) while his heart is distant, this will be responsible for his premature death. (Zohar, Bamidbar 121a)

Since we are concerned about not being fully focused when we petition God, and about not being deserving, we no longer prostrate ourselves during Taḥanun. Instead, Ashkenazim and some Sephardim sit, leaning forward and resting the forehead on the forearm. Other Sephardim avoid even that (Peninei Halakha: Prayer 21:3).

However, on Yom Kippur, thanks to the sanctity of the day and our intense devotion, we are not concerned about any of this. Therefore, the custom is to bow during the description of the avoda, as is appropriate for a penitent.

16. Birkat Kohanim During Ne’ila

In principle, the kohanim should perform Birkat Kohanim any time the ḥazan repeats the Amida. Indeed, in Eretz Yisrael, the kohanim perform Birkat Kohanim at every Shaḥarit and Musaf.^[14] However, the Sages ordained that Birkat Kohanim should not be performed at Minḥa because it generally follows the afternoon meal, and there is concern that the kohanim will drink wine with the meal and then perform Birkat Kohanim under its influence, thus violating a severe prohibition. However, on fast days when Ne’ila is recited (such as Yom Kippur or fasts declared due to drought), since there is no concern that the kohanim will drink, Birkat Kohanim is performed at Ne’ila (SA OḤ 129:1; Peninei Halakha: Zemanim 7:12 n. 16).

Some say that Birkat Kohanim should be recited at Minḥa on Yom Kippur as well; since everyone is fasting, there is no concern about drunkenness. Moreover, on Yom Kippur, the time for Minḥa is late in the afternoon, just before Ne’ila (Behag), whereas all year long, Minḥa may take place at any point between just after midday and shki’a. Nevertheless, most Rishonim maintain that Birkat Kohanim it is not performed at Minḥa. Since, unlike Ne’ila, it is not recited at shki’a, people may erroneously conclude that Birkat Kohanim may be performed at Minḥa on weekdays as well (R. Amram Gaon). In practice, Birkat Kohanim is not performed at Minḥa. However, if a kohen ascends to perform it, he is not sent back to his seat; rather, he performs the blessing (Rambam; SA 129:1-2, 622:4; 623:5).

Ne’ila should be timed so that Birkat Kohanim is performed before shki’a, as many are of the opinion that this mitzva is analogous to the Temple sacrifices, which may be offered by day only (MB 623:8). Since Birkat Kohanim is a Torah commandment, we abbreviate, if necessary, the liturgical poems and supplications to reach Birkat Kohanim before shki’a. Be-di’avad, Birkat Kohanim may be recited during twilight, since it is uncertain that night has begun.^[15]

17. Ne’ila

The Sages instituted an extra prayer service near the end of the fast, for all who increase their prayers will be answered. If we have not managed to be answered through the regular prayers, perhaps an additional prayer will be answered. This service is referred to as Ne’ila because it is recited at the time when the gates of the Sanctuary were locked (ne’ulim) at the conclusion of the day’s avoda. The “locking of the gates” also corresponds to the closing of the gates of heaven. For at the end of the day, the sanctity of Yom Kippur recedes, and the gates of heaven, which were open to those who knocked through repentance, are locked.

The time of Ne’ila is when the sun can be seen in the treetops in the west, approximately forty minutes before sunset. Those who wish to begin as much as an hour before sunset may do so. The ḥazan must time his prayers so that Birkat Kohanim can be completed before sunset (as explained in the previous section).

Even though the gates of the Sanctuary were locked at sunset, the gates of heaven are locked only at the end of the day, after all light has vanished. Therefore, we continue reciting prayers and supplications until tzeit. A ḥazan who extends Ne’ila past tzeit is not to be reprimanded.^[16]

The Ne’ila prayers differ from all other prayers recited during the Days of Awe; wherever we ask to be “inscribed” for good, we now ask to be “sealed,” because now, at the end of Yom Kippur, our verdicts are being sealed. Nevertheless, someone who accidentally invoked “inscribing” instead of “sealing” need not repeat the prayer.

One should marshal all his strength for Ne’ila, for Yom Kippur is the culmination of the Ten Days of Repentance, and Ne’ila is the culmination of Yom Kippur. Everything leads up to the final verdict, so if not now, when? Therefore, even someone who is weak from fasting should summon his strength to pray with clear and pure focus, to resolve to repent and to increase his Torah study and mitzva observance (MB 623:3). Because Ne’ila is so important, it is customary to leave the ark open from the beginning of the repetition of the Amida until the Kaddish at the conclusion of the service (Mateh Ephraim 623:7).

18. Declaring Faith and Blowing the Shofar

At the conclusion of Ne’ila, before shutting the ark, as the gates of heaven, which had been open throughout the Days of Awe, are about to close, when there is no more time to confess or to add more prayers and supplications, the custom of all Israel is to accept the yoke of heaven together. During the course of the Days of Awe, we have sharpened our awareness that faith is the foundation and purpose of everything and that every Jew wants to cling to God and to perfect the world under His kingship. The stronger our faith, the more complete our repentance, and the better and more blessed the upcoming year. Therefore, we spend the last moments of this holy day reinforcing our faith.

The primary acceptance of the yoke of heaven is expressed in the verse of “Shema Yisrael” and in “Barukh shem kevod.” We then recite “The Lord is God” (“Hashem Hu Ha-Elokim”) seven times, alluding to the seven levels of heaven through which the Divine Presence withdraws and returns to the loftiest realms, having been so close to us during the Ten Days of Repentance and Yom Kippur, enabling our repentance (SA 623:6; MB 623:11-12).^[17]

Immediately after this, at tzeit or slightly before, we blow the shofar in accordance with the instructions in the maḥzor. These blasts signal the end of the day and the ascent of the Shekhina, as we read, “God ascends with a blast; the Lord, with the sound of a shofar” (Tehilim 47:6). They commemorate the blast sounded during the Jubilee; with that blast, slaves went free and the fields returned to their original owners (6:11 above). By extension, our shofar-blowing on Yom Kippur symbolizes the emancipation of the soul, freed of the chains of sin and restored to freedom. It also hints at redemption and freedom from any form of subservience, as we read, “And on that day, a great shofar shall be sounded; and the strayed who are in the land of Assyria and the expelled who are in the land of Egypt shall come and worship the Lord on the holy mount in Jerusalem” (Yeshayahu 27:13).

Following these blasts, the tremendous tension of the Days of Awe dissipates, and all Israel experience a great, spiritual catharsis and freedom. Their hearts are filled with joy (3:5 above). Thanks to the profound immersion in repentance and faith, all of Israel knows that God loves them and accepts their repentance, and that they can continue ascending and improving throughout the coming year. Thus, at this point, many congregations dance and sing, “Le-shana ha-ba’a bi-Yerushalayim ha-benuya” (“Next year in Jerusalem rebuilt”).

Where there is concern that people might eat or drink immediately after the shofar blasts, care should be taken not to blow before tzeit. Where there is no such concern, the blasts may be sounded during twilight (MB 623:12).

19. The End of the Fast, Ma’ariv, and Kiddush Levana

As we have seen (above, section 8), the fast technically ends at tzeit, but since there is a mitzva to add to the sacred, we end the fast a few minutes later than that. In Eretz Yisrael, once thirty minutes have elapsed since sunset, it is already several minutes past tzeit, so one may make havdala, eat, and drink. It is not necessary to show concern for Rabbeinu Tam’s view that tzeit is seventy-two minutes after sunset (Peninei Halakha: Shabbat 3:1 n. 1).

Ma’ariv may be started twenty minutes after sunset, but to remove uncertainty, the first paragraph of Shema should be repeated after Ma’ariv (Peninei Halakha: Prayer 25:5).

Many recite Kiddush Levana right after Yom Kippur. The days leading up to Yom Kippur are tension-filled due to the upcoming judgment. Since Kiddush Levana must be recited joyfully, it could not be recited then. With the completion of the Yom Kippur prayers, however, our joy reaches its apex; it is thus an auspicious time to praise and thank God for moonlight. Some prefer to go home and eat and drink first, and then reassemble a minyan to recite Kiddush Levana joyfully. However, if one is afraid that he will forget or have a hard time finding a minyan later, it is better to recite it right after Ma’ariv. (See 5:7 above.)

20. Havdala

Even after Yom Kippur ends, it remains forbidden to do melakha, eat, or drink until after havdala, as we take leave of the holy day through havdala. The recitation of hadvala (“Ata ḥonantanu”) in the berakha of Ata Ḥonen in the Amida of Ma’ariv permits melakha, but eating and drinking remain prohibited until the recitation of havdala over wine. If one did not pray Ma’ariv but recited the phrase “Barukh ha-mavdil bein kodesh le-ḥol” (“Blessed is the One Who distinguishes between the sacred and the mundane”), he may do melakha, but he still may not eat or drink until he hears havdala recited over wine (SA 624:1; Peninei Halakha: Shabbat 8:8).

The havdala after Yom Kippur includes the berakhot over wine and over fire, as well as the berakha of havdala itself. We omit the verses that are customarily recited before havdala after Shabbat (“Hinei Kel…”) as well as the berakha over spices. The berakha over spices is included in havdala after Shabbat to comfort the soul after the departure of the neshama yeteira (lit. “expanded soul”). After Yom Kippur, however, the soul is in a state of joy, not pain, because sins have been forgiven. Even when Yom Kippur is on Shabbat, according to many authorities, the berakha on spices is omitted. One who nevertheless wishes to recite this berakha may do so after he finishes havdala and drinks a bit of wine.^[18]

Unlike on Saturday night, when we recite havdala over a flame we light at that moment, after Yom Kippur we make havdala using a flame that has been burning throughout Yom Kippur. On Motza’ei Shabbat, the purpose of the berakha on fire is to thank God for the fire that was discovered by Adam on the first Motza’ei Shabbat, when he took two stones and struck them together, producing fire, for which he praised and thanked God. To commemorate this, we too thank God for fire on Motza’ei Shabbat. However, after Yom Kippur, we recite the berakha over fire because during Yom Kippur we were not allowed to utilize fire, but it is now permitted to us once again. Therefore, the berakha must be recited specifically over a flame that was burning on Yom Kippur but could not be used because of the prohibition of using fire. Therefore, it is customary to light a yahrzeit candle before Yom Kippur, for use during havdala at the end of the day (SA 624:4; MB ad loc. 7).

Although le-khatḥila the berakha should be recited over a flame that was lit before Yom Kippur, bedi’avad, one who forgot to light a candle before the fast or one whose flame was extinguished may make havdala using a flame that was lit from a flame that has been burning since before Yom Kippur. Thus, one may ask permission from a neighbor to light a new flame from a flame they lit before Yom Kippur. One takes this new flame home and recites havdala over it (Ramban; Rema 624:5).

If one has no flame from before Yom Kippur and cannot light from such a flame he should not recite the berakha over fire after Yom Kippur (SA 624:4; BHL s.v. “ve-yesh omrim”). If Yom Kippur coincides with Shabbat, bedi’avad one may recite the berakha over a flame lit after Shabbat (MB 624:7; SHT ad loc. 9).^[19]

After havdala, we eat and drink joyfully, because it is still a somewhat festive time, and because it expresses our faith that God lovingly accepts those who return to Him. The Sages tell us that after Yom Kippur a heavenly voice proclaims, “Go, eat your bread in gladness, and drink your wine in joy; for your action was already approved by God” (Kohelet 9:7, Kohelet Rabba ad loc.; Rema 624:5).

Pious people and people of action show their alacrity by beginning to build their sukkot after Yom Kippur, thus going directly from one mitzva to the next (Maharil; Rema 624:5; Peninei Halakha: Sukkot 2:12).

01. The Mitzva to Fast

It is a positive commandment to fast on Yom Kippur, as we read:

And this shall be to you a law for all time: In the seventh month, on the tenth day of the month, you shall deprive yourselves; and you shall do no manner of work, neither the citizen nor the stranger who resides among you. For on this day, atonement shall be made for you to purify you of all your sins; you shall purify yourselves before the Lord. It shall be a Shabbat of complete rest for you, and you shall deprive yourselves; it is a law for all time. (Vayikra 16:29-31)

One who does not fast fails to fulfill a positive commandment and violates a negative one. Even though the mitzva of inui (deprivation) is primarily about refraining from life-sustaining food and drink, it also includes four other prohibitions, discussed in the next chapter.

The mitzva is to refrain from eating even the tiniest amount and from drinking even a drop of water. One who eats or drinks in any amount violates a Torah prohibition. One who knowingly eats the volume of a large date (kotevet) or drinks a cheek-full of water is punishable by karet (extirpation), as we read, “Any person who does not deprive himself throughout that day shall be cut off from his kin” (Vayikra 23:29). If one transgresses unknowingly, he is liable to bring a sin offering. These punishments apply only if one eats or drinks an amount large enough to put his mind at ease, as then he is no longer considered to be experiencing inui. These shi’urim (minimum quantities, namely a cheek-full of drink and a kotevet of solid food) were received by Moshe at Sinai as the amounts that put one’s mind at ease. Still, one who eats or drinks anything at all transgresses a Torah prohibition.^[1]

One who eats something that is not generally considered edible – such as leaves, twigs, an extremely sharp spice, or rotten food – does not transgress a Torah prohibition, as this is not the normal way to “eat.” Similarly, one who drinks a non-potable beverage – such as an extremely bitter or rotten liquid – does not transgress a Torah prohibition (SA 612:6-8; Rema ad loc. 9). Nevertheless, all of the above are prohibited rabbinically. Since this person has chosen to eat or drink them during the fast, he has made it clear that from his perspective they are edible or potable. Therefore, it is forbidden for him to eat or drink them. Le-khatḥila one must even avoid consuming less than a shi’ur (MB ad loc. 15).^[2]