05. Reading the Megilla and Publicizing the Miracle

Everyone is obligated in the mitzva of reading the Megilla: men, women, and converts. One who hears someone else read the Megilla discharges his obligation, as long as the reader is obligated in the mitzva. However, if one hears it from a minor, who is not required to observe mitzvot, he has not fulfilled his obligation (sa 689:1-2).

The main purpose of reading the Megilla is to publicize the miracle and demonstrate that God rules and oversees the world, directing everything for the best. Even the worst troubles eventually turn around for the good. This understanding strengthens people’s faith in God and stimulates them to do more to reveal His name and rectify the world.

Reading the Megilla in public, to broadcast the miracle, is so important that even the Kohanim working in the Temple would delay the daily Tamid offering in the morning in order to hear the Megilla with the congregation; only afterward would they offer the Tamid. Similarly, Torah scholars who are occupied by the study of Torah, even if they can read the Megilla with a minyan in their study hall, should nevertheless interrupt their studies in order to go to a synagogue and hear the Megilla together with the masses (Megilla 3a).

Therefore, the members of a synagogue that usually hosts several minyanim every day should try to gather together on Purim and hear the Megilla with a large number of people. However, one who generally prays in a small synagogue need not change his fixed practice in order to hear the Megilla in a large synagogue, provided that there will be a minyan at the reading he attends (sa 687:2, Ĥayei Adam, mb ad loc. 7, sht ad loc. 8, 10).

Only as a last resort – if one is unable to hear the Megilla read in a minyan – may one fulfill the mitzva in private, with a berakha (sa and Rema 690:18).^[4]

06. When to Read the Megilla

One must read the Megilla at night and again during the day, to commemorate the fact that the Jews cried out to God in their time of need during the day and at night (Megilla 4a; Rashi ad loc.).

The nighttime Megilla reading may take place at any point during the night – from tzeit to alot ha-shaĥar – while the daytime reading may take place an time during the day – from sunrise (and be-di’avad, from alot ha-shaĥar) until shki’a. However, the zealous perform mitzvot promptly, reading the Megilla at night immediately after Ma’ariv and during the day immediately after Shaĥarit (sa 687:1, 693:1, 693:4).

One may not eat or sleep before reading the Megilla at night. Studying Torah, however, is permissible. One who finds it difficult to extend Ta’anit Esther until after the Megilla reading may drink beforehand, on condition that he avoids intoxicating drinks. Similarly, one who is very hungry may eat a snack before Megilla reading. That is, he may eat as much fruit as he wants and up to an egg’s volume (kebeitza) of grain-based (mezonot) foods (sa 232:3, mb ad loc. 35; Rema 692:4, ma ad loc. 7, mb ad loc. 14-15).

The same laws apply to the daytime reading. However, since this reading takes place immediately after Shaĥarit, one must also be careful about all the prohibitions that apply prior to Shaĥarit, which are more stringent. Nonetheless, one who already prayed Shaĥarit and has yet to hear the Megilla should not eat before fulfilling the mitzva. Under pressing circumstances, however, one may eat a snack before hearing the Megilla. Likewise, a woman may not eat before hearing the Megilla. If she is very hungry, she may eat a snack, but not a full meal (mb 692:15-16; in a time of very great need, she may ask someone to remind her to hear the Megilla, and then she may eat a full meal before the reading).

Some of the greatest Rishonim maintain that the mitzva of reading the Megilla and publicizing the miracle is primarily fulfilled during the day, like all the other mitzvot of Purim. Therefore, one must be more meticulous about the daytime reading and make an even greater effort to read it in the presence of a large group of people, or at least a minyan.^[5]

07. Women and Megilla Reading

According to Rashi and Rambam, women and men are equally obligated in the mitzva to read the Megilla, and a woman may read the Megilla for her family. In contrast, Behag and Rabbeinu Ĥananel maintain that a woman’s obligation differs from that of a man: Men must read the Megilla, whereas women must hear it. Therefore, a man does not fulfill his obligation with his wife’s reading. Responsa Avnei Nezer (oĥ 511) explains that this difference stems from the fact that women must hear the Megilla only in order to publicize the miracle, and therefore their obligation is only in hearing the Megilla and not reading it. In contrast, men are commanded to publicize the miracle and also to remember Amalek to wipe him out ultimately. Therefore, men are commanded to read the Megilla.^[6]

Since the Rishonim are evenly split on this issue, most Aĥaronim rule that a woman may not read the Megilla on a man’s behalf except in pressing circumstances, when it is not possible for the man to read for himself or hear it from another man. In that case, at least he will fulfill the mitzva according to the opinion that a woman can read on a man’s behalf.^[7]

A woman may read on behalf of other women. Some say that a woman cannot fulfill the obligation on behalf of many women, since Megilla reading has a status similar to Torah reading, and just as a woman does not read from the Torah, so too she does not read the Megilla for many women. Some poskim say that when the Megilla is read for women, no berakha is recited (Ben Ish Ĥai, Year 1, Hilkhot Purim 1 [Tetzaveh]; Kaf Ha-ĥayim 689:19). However, halakhic practice follows the overwhelming majority of poskim who maintain that a woman may read on behalf of other women, reciting the same berakha a man recites. And if the group is comprised of ten women, the reader recites the berakha of “Ha-rav et riveinu” after the Megilla. However, le-khatĥila, it is preferable that women hear the Megilla read by a man, to satisfy all opinions. Ideally, women should hear the Megilla in the synagogue with men, as the more people there are, the more the miracle is publicized.

When a man reads the Megilla for women, the prevalent custom is for the reader to recite the berakha for everyone; and if ten women are present, he recites the berakha of “Ha-rav et riveinu” after the reading. Others follow the custom that one woman recites the berakha for all the women. Both customs are valid.^[8]

08. Minors

It is a mitzva to train children to perform mitzvot, and from the moment a boy or girl reaches the stage at which he or she understands the Megilla and can listen to it as halakha requires, one must train them to do so. This does not depend on a child’s age, but on his personal development. Since the Megilla reading is quite long, most children reach the stage at which they can listen to the entire Megilla properly after the age of nine.

It is a good practice to bring younger children – from age five or six – to the synagogue to hear the Megilla. Even though they have not yet reached the age of education in the mitzva of Megilla reading, as they cannot listen to the entire Megilla meticulously, it is still good to bring them, because they understand the main gist of the story. However, one should not bring small children to the synagogue if they are liable to disrupt the reading and make it difficult for others to hear the Megilla. One must take care not to try to go beyond the letter of the law in educating his children at the expense of the other synagogue attendees, who might suffer because of his children’s disruptions.^[9]

In order to stimulate joy and grab the children’s attention, there is a custom for the congregation to read aloud four verses that essentially signal the beginning and end of the miracle. Afterward, the reader reads these verses again from the scroll (Rema 690:17; mb 689:16; based on Mordechai and Levush). (The verses are: “A Jewish man” [Esther 2:5]; “Mordechai left” [ibid. 8:15]; “The Jews” [ibid. 8:16]; and “For Mordechai” [ibid. 10:3].)

It seems that the purpose of the custom to “beat” Haman with noisemakers is, likewise, to excite the children during the Megilla reading. However, one must be careful not to lend undue importance to this custom and not to make noise when the reader continues to read the Megilla (sa 690:17; also see mb ad loc. 59 and bhl).

09. The Megilla

Megilat Esther is considered holy writ; therefore, it must be written in the way a Torah scroll is written, in black ink on parchment. If it is written using something other than ink, or on paper, it is invalid, and one who reads from it has not fulfilled his obligation. The hide from which the parchment is made must be tanned for the sake of writing a Megilla. The individual sheets of parchment must be sewn together with threads made of sinews. One must etch out the lines using a stylus before commencing to write on the parchment, so that the words come out straight. Furthermore, it must be written by hand, and the scribe must be mindful of the sanctity of the Megilla.^[10]

When writing a Torah scroll, we make sure that all of its letters are written according to their exact configurations, that no letters touch each other, and, of course, that no letters are omitted or added unnecessarily. A scribe should likewise be careful about all these things when writing a Megilla. Be-di’avad, however, there is a difference between a Torah scroll and Megilat Esther: one may not recite the berakha over reading the Torah if the scroll contains a mistake in even one letter, but one may read from, and recite a berakha over, a Megilla that is missing some of its letters, if a perfectly kosher scroll is unavailable. For example, if a scribe mistakenly omitted several letters from a Megilla, or wrote them incorrectly – or if he originally wrote the scroll properly, but some of its letters faded over time – one may still use it to perform the mitzva, as long as the main part of it is written properly. The reason for this is that the Megilla is called a “letter,” indicating that its purpose is to tell the story from a written document, but it does not need to be as precise as a Torah scroll must be. We learn from here that one fulfills his obligation as long as the essentials of the Megilla are written properly, and on condition that one fills in the missing words by reading them from a printed Megilla or by reciting them by heart.^[11]

Technically, one may write a translation of the Megilla, with ink on parchment, for someone who does not understand Hebrew, and by reading this translation, he can fulfill his obligation to read the Megilla. For example, one who knows only English may acquire an English translation of the Megilla, written in ink on parchment, and read from it (sa 690:8-11). We do not follow this ruling in practice, however, since we do not know how to translate the words precisely. Rather, one fulfills his obligation by hearing the Megilla in Hebrew even if he does not understand it, as long as he has the intention to fulfill the mitzva of Megilla reading (sa 690:8, mb ad loc. 32, ahs ad loc. 15).

10. The Mitzva of Reading the Megilla and the Status of One who Missed a Word

To fulfill the mitzva of reading the Megilla, one must read it from a kosher megilla that was written in ink on parchment. If one recites it by heart or reads it from a printed book, he has not discharged his obligation (sa 690:3). If one reads most of the Megilla from a kosher scroll and the rest from a book or from memory, he has fulfilled his obligation, as long as he recites the entire Megilla without missing a word.

However, if the reader skips a word, or makes a mistake in one of the words that changes the meaning of the word, he has not discharged his obligation according to most poskim, and he must read the Megilla again properly.^[12]

Even when the reader reads all the words properly, a listener does not discharge his obligation if he fails to hear one of the words. This is the most important practical halakha of Megilla reading, because people sometimes fail to hear all of the words, due to the excess noise caused by the presence of children in the synagogue. This problem becomes especially acute after Haman’s name is read, as the reader sometimes continues reading before the children finish making noise, causing those who sit in the back of the synagogue to miss a word, thus forfeiting the entire reading.

If one missed a word while hearing the Megilla reading, the solution is to read the missed word or words immediately from the printed Megilla one is using. If, in the meantime, the reader continues to read ahead, one should continue reading until he catches up with the reader. Even though the printed book in front of him is not a kosher Megilla, he may use it to fill in the missing words, be-di’avad, since he hears most of the Megilla from a kosher scroll. However, when listening to the Megilla from the reader, one should not read along with him from a printed version.^[13]

11. The Laws of Reading the Megilla

When not in use, the Megilla is rolled up from the end of the scroll to the beginning. However, since Megilat Esther is referred to as a “letter,” it is customary to prepare the scroll for reading in public by spreading it out and folding it over, leaf over leaf, in order to publicize the miracle. When the reading is completed, the Megilla is rolled up again from end to beginning, making sure that it is not left open out of respect for the Megilla. Only after the Megilla is rolled up does the ĥazan recite the berakha of “Ha-rav et riveinu” (sa 690:17, mb ad loc. 55-56, Kaf Ha-ĥayim ad loc. 102-105).

One may sit or stand while fulfilling the mitzva of reading the Megilla. The only one who must stand is the reader, out of respect for the congregation (sa 690:1). Most Jews have a custom to stand for the berakhot (mb 690:1; Ben Ish Ĥai, Year 1, Hilkhot Purim 4 [Tetzaveh]; see also Kaf Ha-ĥayim 690:2).

The Megilla should be read with its cantillation, but if no one knows how to read it with the cantillation, it may be read without the cantillation, be-di’avad (Sha’arei Teshuva 690:1).

One must read the Megilla in order. If one reads it out of order, he does not fulfill his obligation. For example, if one misses a word or a verse during the reading, he should not say, “I will continue listening to the Megilla until the end, and I will make up what I missed afterward.” Rather, he must immediately fill in what he missed, catch up to the reader, and continue listening to the reading, in the proper order, until the end of the Megilla.^[14]

One who dozes off while listening to the Megilla does not discharge his obligation, as he certainly fails to hear some words (sa 690:12). As we learned above (section 9), one who hears the Megilla fulfills his obligation even if he does not understand Hebrew.

Le-khatĥila, one should read the Megilla continuously, but be-di’avad, if one interrupted the reading in the middle – remaining silent or even speaking – he has not forfeited what he already read and may continue reading from where he left off (sa 690:5; also see mb ad loc. 18 and sa §65).

Many poskim maintain that one who hears the Megilla through an electric device, like a telephone, radio, or loudspeaker, does not fulfill his obligation. The reason for this is that such devices receive a person’s voice as electronic signals and transform it back into a new voice. Therefore, it is like hearing a recording of the Megilla reading, which is invalid. Le-khatĥila, one should heed this opinion.^[15]

12. The Berakhot and the Order of the Reading

We recite three berakhot before the nighttime reading: “Who has sanctified us with His mitzvot and commanded us concerning the reading of the Megilla” (“asher kideshanu be-mitzvotav ve-tzivanu al mikra megilla”); “Who performed miracles for our ancestors in those days, at this time” (“she-asa nisim la-avoteinu ba-yamim ha-hem ba-zeman ha-zeh”); and “Who has given us life, sustained us, and brought us to this time” (“she-heĥeyanu ve-kiyemanu ve-higi’anu la-zeman ha-zeh”).

The berakhot prepare us for the mitzva, focusing the reader and the listeners on fulfilling the mitzva and understanding its purpose: to remember and publicize the miracle that God performed for our ancestors. Nevertheless, one who reads the Megilla without reciting a berakha fulfills his obligation, as long as he intends to fulfill the mitzva (sa 690:14).^[16]

There are varying customs regarding the recitation of She-heĥeyanu during the day. According to Sephardic custom, one does not recite She-heĥeyanu during the day because the She-heĥeyanu recited at night covers the entire day. According to Ashkenazic custom, one must repeat the berakha prior to the daytime reading, because that reading is an independent mitzva. Moreover, the daytime reading is the more important reading of the two; therefore, its berakhot cannot be covered by the berakhot recited at the nighttime reading (sa 692:1).

When reciting She-heĥeyanu before the Megilla reading, it is proper to have in mind that the berakha also applies to the other mitzvot of the day: mishlo’aĥ manot, matanot la-evyonim, and the festive meal. Sephardim have these mitzvot in mind at night, while Ashkenazim do so during the day (mb 692:1).

After the Megilla is read and the scroll is rolled back to the beginning, common custom is to recite “Ha-rav et riveinu,” a berakha of praise and thanksgiving. According to most poskim, this berakha is recited only when the Megilla is read in the presence of ten men or women. If fewer than ten people are present, however, we do not recite the berakha.^[17]

13. Taking Revenge on Haman and His Ten Sons

The execution of Haman and his ten sons is an integral part of the Megilla, for it confirms that justice was done and the wicked people who rose up against the nation of Israel were punished and put to death. Anyone who rises up against Israel, God’s nation, is in effect rebelling against God, Creator and Sustainer of the world, and – according to strict justice – deserves total annihilation. Several laws demonstrate the special significance of killing Haman and his sons.

First, the passage describing the execution of Haman’s ten sons is written in the Megilla in the format of a song. However, this format is unlike the format that appears in other biblical songs, such as the Song at the Sea, where the words and spaces are interwoven. The execution of Haman’s sons, in contrast, is written in a straight and organized fashion. On every line, one word is written on each of the two ends, with a space left in the middle. Thus, the names of the ten sons are written on the right side and the Hebrew word et, which connects the names, is written repeatedly on the left side (Megilla 16b, sa 691:3). The explanation is as follows. The purpose of all other songs is to convey the extent of the salvation that Israel experienced; therefore, they are written in a spacious and expansive format. The song describing the execution of Haman’s sons, however, expresses the joy we feel over the fact that they were utterly destroyed and that strict justice was meted out; therefore, it is written in a closed, linear style (Maharal, Or Ĥadash 9:10).

One must make an effort to read all the names in a single breath, to demonstrate that their souls departed from their bodies simultaneously. If one fails to do this, he has nonetheless fulfilled his obligation, be-di’avad. The letter vav in the name Vaizata is written higher than the other letters, to teach that Haman’s sons were all hanged together (Megilla 16b; sa 690:15, 691:4). The point is that the foundation of Israel’s faith is the existence of one God. The Amalekites oppose this belief and hate the Jews. Thus, when they are eliminated, God’s oneness is revealed to the world. Therefore, when Haman’s sons were punished, they died as one, since their deaths confirmed our belief in God’s oneness (Maharal, loc. cit.).

After the Megilla reading, one must recite, “Cursed is Haman, blessed is Mordechai; cursed is Zeresh, blessed is Esther; cursed are all the wicked people, blessed are all the righteous people; and Ĥarvona, too, is remembered for good (y. Megilla 3:7; sa 690:16).

In the time of the Rishonim, a custom began to spread among both the children and the adults, to bang on a surface when Haman’s name is read. Apparently, they wanted to express their hatred for wicked people and their joy over their downfall. Even though there is no source for this practice, Rema writes, “One should not abolish or deride any custom, for it was not established for naught” (690:17). However, some Rishonim disregard the custom, and some Aĥaronim even oppose it, because the noise is liable to prevent the listeners from fulfilling their obligation to read the Megilla (as explained above in section 10). In practice, one may continue following the custom of “beating” Haman, as long as it is assured that everyone can hear the entire Megilla properly.^[18]

14. Al Ha-nisim, Torah Reading, Eulogies, and Taĥanun

The Sages formulated the Al Ha-nisim prayer so that we may thank God for the salvation He performed for the Jewish people at the time of Purim. We recite it in the berakha of thanksgiving in the Amida and in the berakha of Nodeh Lekha (“We thank You”) in Birkat Ha-mazon. We do not mention Purim in the berakha of Me-ein Shalosh (“Al Ha-miĥya”).

If one forgets to recite Al Ha-nisim in the Amida or in Birkat Ha-mazon, he nonetheless fulfills his obligation. If, however, he remembers before concluding the berakha in which Al Ha-nisim is inserted, he should go back and recite it, unless he already said God’s name at the end of the berakha. In such a situation, it is proper to recite Al Ha-nisim at the end of the Amida, after the berakhot are completed, because one may add unlimited prayers of supplication and thanksgiving at that point. Similarly, one who forgets to recite Al Ha-nisim in Birkat Ha-mazon should recite it toward the end of the prayer, together with the Ha-Raĥaman passages, where one may add as many prayers of thanksgiving as he likes (Rema 682:1, mb ad loc. 4).^[19]

One who begins his meal on Purim but continues eating long into the night must recite Al Ha-nisim in Birkat Ha-mazon, because the beginning of the meal determines when the meal took place (sa 695:3; see mb ad loc. 16).

The Sages enacted that three people are called to the Torah on Purim to read the section beginning with “Amalek came” (Shemot 17:8-16). Even though one of Ezra’s enactments was that no less than ten verses may be read in a public Torah reading, we read nine on Purim because the entire account of Amalek’s attack on Israel contains only nine verses. Some have a custom to read the last verse twice in order to arrive at a total of ten verses (sa 693:4), while others do not (Rema ad loc.).

This halakha is highly suggestive. As long as Amalek’s name has yet to be blotted out, God’s name is not yet fully revealed. Therefore, when we read the section of “Amalek came,” we read only nine verses.

Even though the Jews experienced a great salvation on Purim, the Sages did not institute the recitation of Hallel on that day. The Talmud (Megilla 14a) provides three reasons for this. R. Yitzĥak explains that we do not recite Hallel for a miracle that occurred outside the Land of Israel. According to Rava, it is omitted because we remained subjugated to Aĥashverosh even after the miracle occurred, and Hallel can be said only over a salvation that brings us freedom. R. Naĥman maintains that the Megilla reading is considered like Hallel; therefore, there was no need to enact the recitation of Hallel.^[20]

One may not deliver eulogies or fast on the fourteenth and fifteenth of Adar, whether one lives in a walled or unwalled city. The only time one may deliver a eulogy is at the funeral of a Torah scholar, provided that the body is present (sa oĥ 696:3, yd 401:5).

We omit Taĥanun and La-menatze’aĥ from our prayers on both days of Purim (sa 693:3). We also omit Taĥanun from Minĥa on Ta’anit Esther, if it immediately precedes Purim (mb 131:33).

It is customary to wear Shabbat/Yom Tov clothing on Purim, both at night and during the day (Rema 695:2, Kaf Ha-ĥayim 695:13).

15. Working on Purim

The Sages did not originally establish Purim as a holiday on which work is prohibited. Over time, however, the Jewish people developed a custom to refrain from work on Purim, out of respect for the sanctity of the day, and the custom is binding. The Sages go so far as to say that anyone who works on Purim will never see any blessing from it (Beit Yosef, sa, Rema 696:1).

Therefore, one may not go about his regular work on Purim. If, however, refraining from work would cause him or his employer a great loss, he may work on Purim. In addition, a poor person who has nothing to eat may work on Purim (sht 696:2-3).

One may do joyous work on Purim, like preparing a new home for a son who will soon be married and planting decorative trees in one’s yard. In addition, one may do mitzva-related work, like writing down novel Torah insights. One may also do easy work, like writing a letter. All of this is permitted provided that it does not ruin one’s joy or prevent one from performing the mitzvot of Purim (sa 696:1, mb ad loc. 6).

One may cut one’s nails on Purim, because this is an easy task, while one may not wash clothes by hand, sew, or cut one’s hair (Ben Ish Ĥai, Hilkhot Purim 21 [Tetzaveh]). However, if they are needed on Purim, one may do arduous tasks, including washing clothes by hand, sewing, and cutting one’s hair (Rema 696:1).

Technically, one may engage in commerce on Purim, because successful transactions can bring one joy. However, it is proper to be stringent in this matter, because such endeavors can drag on and take away from the joy of Purim. Therefore, it is proper to open only stores that sell Purim necessities (mb 696:3, ahs 696:2, Kaf Ha-ĥayim 696:5).

The custom of refraining from work on Purim takes effect only during the day. It is true that some Aĥaronim rule stringently and prohibit work at night, as well. However, the very fact that there is a debate regarding working at night shows clearly that there is no accepted custom prohibiting work at night. Therefore, one may work on the night of Purim (see bhl 696:1).

Residents of unwalled cities may work on the Purim observed by residents of walled cities, and residents of walled cities may work on the Purim observed by residents of unwalled cities (sa 696:2).

01 – The Thirty-Third Day of the Omer

It is customary to rejoice to some extent on Lag B’Omer. Even though we observe some customs of mourning during the Omer period, one is, nevertheless, permitted to sing and dance on Lag B’Omer. Furthermore, one does not recite the Tachanun supplication on that day, nor does one recite it in the Minchah service of the previous day. In addition, one is not allowed to fast on Lag B’Omer. ¹, but a bridegroom fasts (M.A. 573:1). Some say that a bridegroom does not fast (Mishmeret Shalom 38). The Levush, Pri Megadim, and others write that one does not recite Tachanun during Minchah of the previous day. The author of Chok Ya’akov, however, rules that one should recite it. See K.H.C. 493:28. It seems that the [prevalent] custom is to omit it. ]
The reason we rejoice on Lag B’Omer is that the Rishonim had a tradition that the students of Rabbi Akiva stopped dying on the thirty-third day of the Omer (Meiri, Yevamot 62b; S.A. 493:2). Some explain that his students actually continued dying afterwards, but on the day of Lag B’Omer, R. Akiva began teaching new students – including Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai – who did not die in the plague, and through them Torah spread among the Jewish people. This is why we rejoice on Lag B’Omer (Pri Chadash 493:2). Others claim that on the thirty-third of the Omer R. Akiva gave rabbinic ordination to his five [new] students – R. Meir, R. Yehudah, R. Yosi. R. Shimon bar Yochai, and R. Elazar ben Shamu’a – who continued the tradition of Torah (K.H.C. 493:26, based on Sha’ar HaKavanot). Another reason for rejoicing on Lag B’Omer is that it is the anniversary of the death (hillula) of the holy Tana, R. Shimon bar Yochai, who was R. Akiva’s disciple.
We will [first] summarize briefly the customs of mourning and rejoicing that pertain to Lag B’Omer. According to all customs, one may sing, dance, and play musical instruments from the beginning until the end of Lag B’Omer. Regarding weddings and haircuts [the matter depends on one’s custom]. Ashkenazim and some Sefardic communities allow weddings and haircuts during the day of Lag B’Omer, and some allow them even during the night. Most Sefardim, however, refrain from weddings and haircuts on Lag B’Omer (see above 3:4-5). Nonetheless, when Lag B’Omer falls out on Friday, one may take a haircut in honor of Shabbat, even according to Sefardic custom (S.A. 493:2). Those who follow the customs of the Ari z”l do not cut their hair on Lag B’Omer [even in this situation], because they refrain from haircuts throughout the Omer period, until the day before Shavu’ot (K.H.C. 493:13).

02 – The Hillula of R. Shimon bar Yochai (“Rashbi”)

Many people have a custom to spend Lag B’Omer on Mount Meiron, where R. Shimon bar Yochai and his son, Rabbi Elazar, are buried. There, they rejoice greatly, light bonfires, sing, and dance. Among those who participate in these celebrations are tzaddikim (righteous individuals) and Torah scholars.
Some great Torah authorities, [however], doubted the legitimacy of this practice. After all, how can we establish a festival on a day when no miracle happened and that our Sages z”l did not institute as a holiday? Granted, we do not recite Tachanun or fast on Lag B’Omer, as is well known, but we find no source indicating that it is a holiday (Chatam Sofer, Y.D. 233). And if it is in honor of the anniversary of Rashbi’s death, it would be more fitting to fast, as is generally done on the day a tzaddik died. Therefore, how do people rejoice and make a hillula on the day R. Shimon bar Yochai died (Sho’el U’Meishiv, fifth edition, 39)?
Nevertheless, many people, including great scholars and righteous individuals, customarily celebrate there in a religious fashion. Even though, in general, the anniversary of a tzaddik’s death is a sad day, the kabbalists conveyed in the name of R. Shimon bar Yochai that he wanted people to rejoice on the anniversary of his death. The Zohar calls the day that Rashbi departed this world “hillula,” which is like a wedding celebration, for clinging to the Shechinah in this world is like engagement, while clinging [to it] in the next world is more comparable to marriage. Death is perceived differently in this world than it is in the next. In this world, death is viewed as the saddest occurrence, and when a tzaddik dies he leaves a great void, and the nation mourns its loss. In the supernal worlds, however, it is understood that everything is for the best. On the contrary, when a tzaddik is freed from the shackles of this world, he is privileged to absorb the full light of the Torah. This is especially true of tzaddikim who engage in the esoteric side of the Torah, for they are mainly involved in the inner, hidden light of the soul. Therefore, as long as they exist within the physical confines of this world, they cannot absorb the full inner light. However, when they depart this world and go beyond its physical boundaries, the gates of wisdom and the inner light are opened wide before them. Then, they understand the depths of the secrets they studied during their lives. Already on the day of death, it is possible to discern that the “walls” and “barriers” of this world are fading away. Accordingly, Idra Zutta relates that on the day Rashbi died, he revealed deep and wondrous secrets that he was not allowed to reveal beforehand, and he [simultaneously] cried and laughed.
Therefore, the day a tzaddik departs this world is similar to a wedding, because on that day he is privileged to fully connect to the Shechinah, and his Torah becomes a great light in the supernal worlds. Subsequently, his disciples and successors in this world can also connect more deeply to his Torah and the secrets [he taught]. This is why those students who understand this deep idea have a custom to celebrate a hillula on the day their righteous mentor died and revealed the Torah’s secrets. ¹. The anniversary of death of a great scholar in the realm of the Written Law (Torah SheBichtav), which is fixed and stable, is a painful day. An example of this is the seventh of Adar, the day on which Moshe Rabbeinu a”h died. In contrast, we make a hillula on the day a great scholar in the realm of the Oral Law (Torah SheBa’al Peh) died, because his Torah continues to grow and become more detailed after his death. ]
R. Shimon bar Yochai, who wrote the Zohar, is unique in that even Jews who do not understand the secrets of the Torah commemorate the anniversary of his death. This is how Lag B’Oner became a day of celebration for the esoteric [side of] the Torah. Many people go up to Mount Meiron for Rashbi’s hillula. The great scholars among them rejoice over the secrets that were revealed to them in his merit and in the merit of his disciples and successors. The masses who join in the festivities – even though they do not understand the secrets of the Torah – rejoice over the fact that the Torah is deeper than the sea and that there are great and righteous people who connect to its deep secrets, for this entire world of darkness is enlightened a bit as a result of this. Furthermore, the very recognition that there are deep secrets beyond the average person’s comprehension generates humility and wisdom, and even simple people are elevated by virtue of this recognition.

03 – R. Shimon bar Yochai’s Character

Before we elaborate on the customs of the hillula, we will briefly discuss the unique character of R. Shimon bar Yochai and his mentor, Rabbi Akiva. In general, our Sages preferred to follow the “middle path,” taking into consideration the difficulties that commonly arise in this world. Rashbi, however, adhered to the unadulterated truth, with no concern for the limitations of this world, and [God] performed miracles on his behalf, and he succeeded.
[Take for example], the issue of foreign rule [in the Land of Israel]. The Sages of Israel [always] taught that a Jew should pray for the welfare of the kingdom [under whose rule he lives], and they tried, to the best of their ability, to avoid clashes between the Jews and the [various] empires that ruled over them. Only when there was no other recourse, and the kingdom forced the Jews to violate their religion, did the Rabbis call for a rebellion. In the absence of religious persecution, however, they tried to find a way to reconcile with the kingdom. Accordingly, the Talmud (Shabbat 33b) relates that several Sages were once talking about the Roman Empire. R. Yehudah bar Ilai began the discussion with words of praise for the Romans, saying, “How pleasant are the deeds of this nation; they established marketplaces, erected bridges, and built bathhouses.” Even though R. Yehudah knew that the Romans issued harsh decrees against the Jews – even destroying the Second Temple and killing hundreds of thousands of Jews during the Great Rebellion and the Bar Kochva Revolt – he preferred to attribute the tragedies that the Romans brought upon us to other factors and concentrate on the positive sides of their rule, in order to avoid heightening the tensions. R. Yossi preferred to remain silent. Apparently, he did not agree with [R. Yehudah’s] words of praise, but he did not want to denounce [the Romans] either, so as not to create unproductive tensions. R. Shimon bar Yochi, in contrast, was unable to tolerate words of praise for the evil Roman Empire, and he said, “All that they built they built solely for their own needs. They established marketplaces in which to station prostitutes, bathhouses in which to pamper themselves, and bridges upon which to collect taxes.” The Roman found out [about this conversation] and decreed: R. Yehudah who praised us shall be promoted, R. Yossi who remained silent shall be punished with exile, and R. Shimon who denounced us shall be put to death. R. Shimon fled and hid in the beit midrash (study hall) together with his son, while his wife provided them with food and water. It is important to note that after the brutal rebellions that the Jews staged against the Roman Empire – rebellions that caused many Roman deaths and shook the [entire] Empire – the Romans took no chances and ruthlessly pursued any display of Jewish opposition to their rule. Apparently, Roman troops searched for Rashbi for years, in order to kill him. The situation became so dangerous that R. Shimon could no longer rely on his wife. Therefore, he and his son moved to a cave. Miraculously, a carob tree sprouted outside the cave and a stream of water began to flow there, providing them sustenance for twelve years, until they heard that the Caesar had died and his decree was nullified. [R. Shimon and his son] reached such great heights in Torah while there that when they left the cave they could not tolerate worldly concerns, and everything they looked at burst into flames. Consequently, they had to return to the cave for another year in order to delve deeper into the Torah and understand the value of this world. Only then did they leave the cave [permanently] (Shabbat 33b).
[Another example of Rashbi’s uncompromising nature] relates to the issue of making a living. Most of the Rabbis held that each individual needs to worry about making a living, and even Torah scholars need to work and support themselves. Rashbi, on the other hand, said, “If a man plows at the time of plowing, plants at the time of planting, harvests at the time of harvesting, threshes at the time of threshing, and winnows when there is wind, what will be of the Torah? Rather, when the Jews do God’s will, others do their work, and when they fail to do God’s will, they do their own work… (in addition to) the work of others” (Berachot 35b). ¹. He also spoke a great deal about the uniqueness (segulah) of the Jewish people. [For example]: “Wherever the Jews were exiled, the Shechinah accompanied them” (Megillah 29a), and “The Holy One, blessed be He, gave the Jews three good gifts by way of suffering: Torah, Eretz Yisrael, and the World to Come” (Berachot 5a). ]
Even though R. Shimon bar Yochai’s path is not suitable for the public at large, and the necessities of life force us to consider life’s constraints – indeed, HaShem actually wants us work towards perfecting the world, while taking into account the obstacles in our way, without relying on miracles – nonetheless, there is great value in having a profound Torah scholar who lives his life according to [Israel’s] eternal values, without compromise. This way, everyone can see tangibly the wondrous [results] of absolute adherence to Torah. Granted, practical decisions and general guidance for the public are determined by the majority of Israel’s Sages, who take into account the limitations of this world and extenuating circumstances. Nevertheless, the great vision of faith and redemption shines forth from the strength of R. Shimon bar Yochai, who sacrificed himself for Israel’s glory and its faith, establishing for future generations that the Roman Empire, which persecuted the Jews, was an evil kingdom. This is why the Jewish masses hallow and venerate R. Shimon bar Yochai.
Rashbi’s focus on the esoteric side of the Torah is related to his [unique] character. By [studying] the secrets of the Torah, one can connect better to that which is beyond ordinary life in this world, to the eternal world, to Israel’s uniqueness (segulah), and to the assurance of redemption. After all, such study elevates a person beyond the external existence that oppresses [one] and conceals [the truth], illuminating eternal ideas with a precious light.

04 – Rabbi Akiva

The hillula celebration of Lag B’Omer also memorializes, in hidden form, the greatest expositor of the Oral Law (Torah SheBa’al Peh), the wondrous Tana, Rabbi Akiva, one of whose greatest disciples was R. Shimon bar Yochai. The Talmud relates that Rashbi used to encourage his students to review his teachings because they were a compendium of R. Akiva’s Torah (Gittin 67a). Rashbi also learned to sacrifice himself for Israel’s honor from his master, for R. Akiva supported the rebellion against the Romans and encouraged Bar Kochva’s [revolt]. [As mentioned above, one of the reasons] we rejoice on Lag B’Omer is because of the secrets of the Torah [that were revealed on that day]. This aspect is also related to R. Akiva, of whom it is said that he entered the Pardes – that is, the deep secrets of the Torah – and came out unscathed (Chaggigah 14b). The other Sages who entered with him, however, suffered harm, for they were incapable of absorbing the awe-inspiring secrets of the Pardes.
The halachic reason given for rejoicing on Lag B’Omer revolves around the fact that R. Akiva’s disciples continued the mesorah (transmission) of the Torah, as we explained above (sec. 1). After all, R. Akiva is one of the pillars of the Oral Law. Rabbi Tzaddok HaKohen of Lublin explains (Pri Tzaddik, Lag B’Omer 1) that [the Rabbis] could not establish a holiday on the anniversary of R. Akiva’s death because he was killed by the government. Therefore, they established the hillula on the day his student, R. Shimon bar Yochai, died. Consequently, Rashbi’s hillula includes R. Akiva’s. Thus, it is fitting to focus on R. Akiva’s Torah and greatness on Lag B’Omer.
There was almost no one in history who began studying Torah under worse conditions than R. Akiva did. Nonetheless, by virtue of his diligence and great faith, he reached the loftiest heights (see Avot DeRebbe Natan, chap. 6). To a large extent, this was due to his wife Rachel, the daughter of Kalba Savu’a, one of the wealthiest Jews at the time. She recognized the lofty stature of her husband’s soul and agreed to marry him if he would learn Torah. [As a result], her wealthy father took an oath forbidding her from deriving any benefit from his possessions. Nonetheless, she refused to change her mind, married R. Akiva, and became one of the poorest Jews of the time. Despite all this, she continued, with great self-sacrifice, to encourage her husband to learn Torah. After R. Akiva became the Gadol HaDor (the greatest Torah Sage of his generation), he said to his students, “My [Torah] and your [Torah] is [truly] hers” (Ketuvot 63a).
“Rav Yehudah said in the name of Rav: ‘When Moshe ascended to the heavens, he found the Holy One, blessed be He, sitting and tying crowns onto the letters. He said to Him, “Master of the Universe, who is preventing You?” (Who needs the preciseness of these crowns? No one understands their meaning, anyway.) [God] responded to him, “There is a person who is going to live in many generations from now, whose name is Akiva son of Yosef. He is going to derive heaps and heaps of laws from every tip of a letter”… [Moshe] replied, “Master of the Universe, You have a man as great as that and You are giving the Torah through me?” Said [God], “Be silent! This is how I want it to be…”’” (Menachot 29b). The fact that HaShem showed Moshe specifically R. Akiva from among all the Sages of Israel indicates that he is considered the greatest expositor of the Oral Law (see also Sanhedrin 86a, where the Gemara states that all anonymous halachic teachings stem from him).
R. Akiva’s dedication to faith [in God] and Torah was boundless. Ever after 24,000 of his students died, he did not lose his faith. Rather, he continued to teach more students, from whom Torah spread throughout Israel. [Another example of his faith]: When he saw a fox leaving the site of the Holy of Holies, and his colleagues cried, he laughed, because of his faith that just as the prophets’ warnings of calamity came true, so will their words of consolation (Makkot 24b).
When the Romans issued a decree against Torah study, R. Akiva sacrificed himself and taught Torah to the masses. [Unfortunately, though], he was caught, incarcerated, and sentenced to a cruel death. Our Sages say: “When they brought R. Akiva out to be executed, the time to recite the Shema arrived. [The Romans] proceeded to comb his flesh with iron combs, and [despite this] R. Akiva accepted upon himself the yoke of Heaven [by reciting the Shema]. His disciples said to him, ‘Our master, even to such a degree?’ (Behold, one is exempt from reciting the Shema under such excruciating circumstances. Why, then, are you exerting yourself so greatly to read it?) He replied, ‘My whole life I was troubled by the verse With all your soul, [which implies that one must love God] even if He takes away your soul. I said to myself, “When will I have the opportunity to fulfill it?” And now that the moment has arrived, shall I neglect to fulfill it?!’ He proceeded to draw out the word echad (one) [in the verse, Hear, O Israel, the Lord our God, the Lord is one], until his soul left him while saying, ‘one.’ A heavenly voice came forth and proclaimed, ‘Fortunate are you, Rabbi Akiva, for your soul left you with [the word] “one”’… A heavenly voice came forth and proclaimed, ‘Fortunate are you Rabbi Akiva, for you are ready for life in the World to Come’” (Berachot 61b).

05 – Bonfires on Lag B’Omer

For hundreds of years now, the custom has been to light a large bonfire near R. Shimon bar Yochai’s gravesite on Mt. Meiron, in honor of his hillula. Chassidim have a custom to light bonfires in other places as well. Some light candles in their synagogues in commemoration of the hillula.
Candles and light allude to Torah and mitzvot, as it says, For the commandment is a candle and the Torah is light (Mishlei 6:23). Fire is a wondrous thing. Out of inanimate, cold logs and oil suddenly comes forth a flame that has tremendous powers – to give light and warmth, and to burn. This is why Torah and mitzvot are compared to fire and a flame. By way of the Torah [that is studied] and the mitzvot that are observed in this dark, cold world, a person merits everlasting light.
Chassidim light bonfires on Lag B’Omer to allude to the great light of the hidden Torah that Rashbi revealed on the day he died. The Zohar (vol. 3, p. 291b) relates that R. Shimon bar Yochai revealed great secrets that day, which were recorded in Idra Zutta, and his students could not get near to him because of the great fire [that surrounded him].
Nevertheless, we must emphasize that the customs of [rejoicing on] Lag B’Omer are voluntary. Neither the Rambam nor the Shulchan Aruch rule that one must light a bonfire on Lag B’Omer or visit the grave of R. Shimon bar Yochai. Furthermore, many great rabbis disregard these customs altogether.

06 – The Chalekah or Upsherin Custom: Cutting the Hair of Young Boys

Some have a custom to refrain from cutting their son’s hair until the age of three. When the child reaches that age, they cut his hair and leave side-locks. This way they train him to keep the mitzvah of You shall not round the corners of your head (VaYikra 19:27), which means that one may not cut his hair in a rounded fashion, while removing the side-locks.
Those who follow this custom find an allusion to it in the mitzvah of Orlah. Chazal say that the three years of Orlah hint to the first three years of a child’s life, before he learns to speak, during which he does not fulfill any mitzvot. And in the fourth year, all of its fruit shall be sanctified for giving praise to the Lord (ibid. 19:24), meaning that his father consecrates him for Torah study (Tanchuma, Kedoshim 14). Those who follow this custom also explain that during a child’s first three years of life, he is like an Orlah tree, and one should therefore not cut his hair. When the fourth year arrives, however, and he is capable of sanctifying himself [to some degree], we cut his hair and leave him side-locks, which is the first mitzvah that we fulfill through him [that he can remember]. And this is a special mitzvah, because the child becomes recognizably Jewish through it.
Since this is the mitzvah through which we begin training the child to fulfill God’s commandments, the custom is to rejoice over it, in order to bring the child to love mitzvot. People, therefore, invite relatives and friends and honor them with food and drink.
Many Jews from the Galilee had a custom to cut their son’s hair at the burial site of R. Shimon bar Yochai in Meiron, so that the child’s inauguration into mitzvah observance can be accompanied by a connection to a tzaddik. Jews from Jerusalem, who lived far from Meiron, customarily went to the cave of Shimon HaTzaddik, north of the Old City. Other communities used to cut their child’s hair near the local synagogue, and still others ask a Torah scholar to cut the first lock of hair.
Some people have a custom to give haircuts on Lag B’Omer, in Meiron, to any boy whose third birthday fell or will fall within a few months of Lag B’Omer. Others are careful not to cut a child’s hair before his third birthday. Therefore, if his birthday falls out after Lag B’Omer, they wait until his birthday to cut his hair, and if he was born a few weeks before Lag B’Omer, they wait until Lag B’Omer to give him his haircut. But if he was born several months before Lag B’Omer, they cut his hair on his birthday. ¹
However, it is important to emphasize that there is no obligation to follow these customs. Furthermore, the custom of giving haircuts to young children is not mentioned at all in the Rambam, Shulchan Aruch, or the works of the other renowned poskim. Therefore, anyone who wants to may cut his son’s hair even before his third birthday. This is the practice of many Torah scholars.

07 – Throwing Clothes into the Fire and Praying at the Gravesites of Tzaddikim

Many people have a custom of throwing expensive clothing into the bonfire at Meiron, explaining that they do so in honor of the Tana R. Shimon bar Yochai. There are even testimonies of great rabbis doing so. On the other hand, some gedolim are skeptical about this practice, claiming that it has no basis and, worse, is forbidden because of the prohibition against destroying things for no reason (bal tashchit). Granted, they used to burn the clothes of a king after his death, but that was because no one else is allowed to use them, out of honor for the king. Here, however, why should we burn clothing for no reason (Sho’el U’Meishiv, fifth edition, sec. 39; Chikrei Lev, last edition, Y.D. 11)? Others try to justify the custom, saying that one transgresses the prohibition of bal tashchit only when destroying something for no reason, but if there is a purpose, like honoring Rashbi, it is permissible (Torah Lishmah, 400). Nevertheless, it seems to me that it is preferable to donate the value of the clothing to charity than to burn them in a bonfire. ¹ also performed this ritual. ]
When going to pray at the gravesite of the righteous, one must be careful not to turn to them in prayer, because we are commanded to pray to God alone. Anyone who prays to a tzaddik commits a sin and is similar to one who engages in necromancy, which the Torah forbids (Devarim 18:11). Some authorities permit one to turn to a deceased tzaddik and ask him to intercede before the Exalted One on behalf of those who pray at his grave (Pri Megadim 581, Eshel Avraham 16). Others, however, prohibit this, because this too has elements of necromancy. Rather, we must direct all of our prayers exclusively to the Master of the world, without introducing any middlemen into the mix. One who is praying to God may ask Him to accept his prayers in the merit of a particular tzaddik (Maharil, Taz 581:39), because when we connect to the Torah and good deeds of a tzaddik we become better people, and in that merit we ask God to accept our prayers.

01. Where to Light

The Sages state: “Ĥanuka candles should be placed at the doorway, outside the home. One who lives on an upper floor places them in the window facing the street. In times of danger, it is sufficient to place them on the table” (Shabbat 21b).

In the past, most people lived in single-story homes. A doorway led either to the street or to an enclosed courtyard with an exit to the street. The Sages ordained that people should light at the exit to the street, in order to publicize the miracle of Ĥanuka. They added that the candles should be lit to the left of the entranceway. This way, people passing through are surrounded by mitzvot, with the mezuza on the right and the candles on the left (Shabbat 22a).

The Sages further stated that ideally the menora should be placed no lower than three tefaĥim from the ground and no higher than ten tefaĥim from the ground (between 9 and 30 inches). The reason for this is that if it is placed higher than ten tefaĥim, people who see it would think it is meant to illuminate the entrance to the home, since when people used to light candles to illuminate their homes, they would place them in their entranceways at a height of above ten tefaĥim. However, if it is placed lower than three tefaĥim, which is very close to the ground, people would think that the candles were placed there only temporarily, and would soon be moved to an area that needs to be illuminated. Only when the menora is placed at a height between three and ten tefaĥim is it clear to all that it was lit to fulfill the mitzva, and in this way the miracle is publicized. In any case, be-di’avad, if one lights Ĥanuka candles lower than three tefaĥim or higher than ten tefaĥim, he has fulfilled his obligation. However, if one lights candles at the entrance to his home and places them higher than twenty amot (about 30 feet), he has not fulfilled his obligation. In such a case, the candles are so high that people are not likely to see them, as people do not normally look at things that are so high (Shabbat 21b; sa 671:6).

Some people lived on upper floors and exited through the residence on the ground floor. They did not have their own doorway to the street, and had they lit at the entrance to the ground-floor residence, no one would realize that the candles were theirs. Therefore, the Sages instructed them to light in their upper-floor home, in a window facing the street.

In times of danger, when Jews feared harassment from non-Jews, the Sages stated that one should light Ĥanuka candles on a table inside one’s home. The miracle would be publicized only to the individual and the members of his household.

02. Private Homes

The Sages’ enactment seems to indicate that in the past there was no concern that the wind would blow out the Ĥanuka candles that were lit at the entrance to the home. Homes were built close together, many cities and courtyards were enclosed by a wall, and there were no strong winds blowing between the homes. Therefore, evidently, it was possible to light candles outside entranceways and courtyards without worrying that the candles would blow out. Today, though, when one lights candles outside, the wind usually blows them out. The only way to protect the candles is to light them in a glass box, like an aquarium.

However, the Sages never required people to buy glass boxes in order to fulfill the mitzva of lighting Ĥanuka candles. Therefore, one who does not wish to buy a glass box may light the candles inside his home. If he lights in a window facing the street, he beautifies the mitzva of publicizing the miracle to the same degree as one who lights in the entranceway, though he does not further beautify the mitzva by lighting on the left side of the entranceway and thus surrounding himself with mitzvot (the mezuza on the right and the candles on the left). Those who wish to beautify the mitzva to the greatest extent should buy a glass box and light outside the entranceway of the house on the left side. If several family members are lighting, as is the Ashkenazic custom (above, 12:3-4), they should make sure that every menora appears distinct, so that it is clear how many candles are lit on each day of Ĥanuka. Another possibility is for the other household members to light inside the home, at the window.^[1]

In the past, many homes had walled courtyards, and people would exit to the street through a gate in the wall. In such a case, the courtyard was considered an extension of the home and the correct place to light was in the entranceway of the courtyard. In contrast, today’s front yards are not walled, and therefore the correct place to light is at the entranceway to the home itself.^[2]

In some homes, the entranceway is not clearly visible to many people on the street, while lighting in the window would be more clearly visible from the street. Some maintain that, in such a case, it is still preferable to light in the entranceway, as doing so follows the Sages’ original enactment, so that one who enters the home will be surrounded by mitzvot. Others maintain that lighting in the window is preferable in this case, since the primary reason for the enactment is to publicize the miracle, and more people will see the candles if they are lit in the window. In practice, it seems that the mitzva is rendered more beautiful when one lights in the window. However, there is also an advantage to lighting in the entranceway.^[3]

03. Apartment Buildings

Nowadays, many people live in apartment buildings. The best place for them to light is in a window facing the street or on a porch facing the street, as this is the most effective way of publicizing the miracle. Those who light in the window must make sure that both household members and passersby can see the candles. Therefore, one should not use a menora that has a back that blocks the view of the candles from either side.^[4]

Even when the window facing the street is higher than ten tefaĥim (c. 30 inches), one should still light there, because it is more important to publicize the miracle to passersby than to be meticulous about lighting the candles lower than ten tefaĥim.^[5]

Some maintain that it is better to light in the hallway right outside the apartment door, so that one who enters the home will be surrounded by mitzvot – the mezuza on the right and the Ĥanuka candles on the left. Although one who chooses to light this way certainly fulfills his obligation, it is nevertheless better to light in the window facing the street, to publicize the miracle.^[6]

Even if the apartment is on an upper floor and the window is higher than twenty amot (c. 30 feet), as long as passersby can see the candles through the window it would seem that it is preferable to light there in order to publicize the miracle. However, if one wishes, he may light in the hallway right outside the apartment door, as this publicizes the miracle somewhat as well. Even if he lights the candles inside his home, he has fulfilled his obligation.^[7]

04. The Proper Time and Duration of Lighting

The Sages ordained that one must light the Ĥanuka candles when the miracle will be publicized most effectively. In the past, when there were no street lights, at nightfall the streets would fill with people returning home from their daily activities. Therefore, the Sages declared that the proper time to light the candles is “from sunset until the marketplace empties out” (Shabbat 21b).The Rishonim disagree whether “sunset” here refers to the beginning of sunset, meaning when the sun disappears from view, or to the end of sunset, meaning when the sunlight disappears from view as well and the stars become visible. On one hand, at the beginning of sunset the streets are more crowded. On the other hand, since there is still a relatively large amount of sunlight at that time, the candles are less visible. Therefore, it is better to wait until tzeit ha-kokhavim to light. Indeed, the widespread practice in Israel is to light at tzeit, which is about twenty minutes after shki’a in Israel.^[8]

Another issue that arises, however, is that men are obligated to pray Ma’ariv, and many regularly do so immediately at tzeit. For these men, praying Ma’ariv takes precedence over lighting Ĥanuka candles, since the former is a more constant practice than the latter. Additionally, by praying Ma’ariv they also fulfill the Torah commandment to recite the Shema in the evening. After praying, they should return home quickly, in order to light as close as possible to tzeit. Those who usually pray Ma’ariv later should light candles at tzeit and pray at their usual time.^[9]

Even though one fulfills one’s obligation as long as the Ĥanuka candles remain lit for half an hour, some say that nowadays, when people regularly walk through the streets well beyond tzeit, it is preferable to beautify the mitzva by lighting candles that will remain lit for two hours or more. They contend that this is a commendable practice because the more people that see the candles, the more the miracle will be publicized.^[10]

05. Friday Evening and Saturday Night

As we have seen, the Sages ordained that one must light the Ĥanuka candles after sunset. If people were to light earlier, the sunlight would render the candles less visible. However, on Friday evening, obviously one may not light candles after sunset, since Shabbat begins at sunset, and on Shabbat one may not light a fire. In addition, one should not light immediately before sunset because of the mitzva of tosefet Shabbat, which dictates that we begin Shabbat a bit early in order to extend the sanctity of Shabbat into the mundane week. In practice, most Israeli communities accept Shabbat about twenty minutes before sunset, and, accordingly, this is the Shabbat candle-lighting time that appears on Israeli calendars. On Shabbat Ĥanuka, one must light the Ĥanuka candles before lighting the Shabbat candles.^[11]

Although we light Ĥanuka candles before sunset on Friday, the primary time for publicizing the miracle is at night. Therefore, one must make sure that there is sufficient wax or oil for the candles to remain lit until half an hour after tzeit.

It is preferable to pray Minĥa with a minyan before lighting the Ĥanuka candles, because Minĥa relates to the outgoing day, whereas the candles are part of the upcoming day. However, one should not skip Minĥa with a minyan to this end (sa 679:1; mb ad loc. 2; Kaf Ha-ĥayim 671:79).

On Motza’ei Shabbat, one must first pray Ma’ariv and then light candles. Many people also make havdala before lighting, because havdala concludes Shabbat, whereas the candles belong to the upcoming day (Taz 681:1; ahs 681:2; Ben Ish Ĥai, Year 1, Hilkhot Ĥanuka 21 [Vayeshev]). Others light Ĥanuka candles before havdala, in order to light as soon as possible after tzeit. Additionally, one should delay havdala as much as possible in order to extend the sanctity of Shabbat to some extent. Nevertheless, in order for lighting candles to be permissible before havdala, one must first recite either Ata Ĥonantanu during the Amida of Ma’ariv or the phrase “barukh ha-mavdil bein kodesh le-ĥol” (“blessed is the One Who distinguishes between the sacred and the mundane”) (sa and Rema 681:1). In practice, both customs are halakhically valid (bhl ad loc.), and each person may choose his own custom.

06. Delaying Candle-Lighting When Necessary

As we have seen, in the time of the Sages people generally returned home at nightfall. Therefore, the Sages stated that the mitzva to light Ĥanuka candles extends “from sunset until the marketplace empties out.” The expression “until the marketplace empties out” refers to the time when the poor people who would collect leftover food from the market stalls would return to their homes (Shabbat 21b). This was about half an hour after lighting time (Rif).

Nowadays, when there is electric lighting and most people continue working for several hours after dark, the best time to light is still the time that the Sages ordained – from tzeit until half an hour afterward. However, if one finds it difficult to return home by tzeit, he may light later. One should try to return home as soon as possible, in order to light close to the ideal time ordained by the Sages. Specifically, one should make an effort not to light later than 9 pm. Until then, it is standard for people to come home from work, so this period of the evening is still considered “until the marketplace empties out” (see n. 13 below). One should make sure not to eat a meal, meaning a keveitza of bread or mezonot, until after lighting (mb 672:10 and 431:6; above 12:13).

In some synagogues, a regular Torah class takes place following Ma’ariv, and if people leave to light candles after Ma’ariv, the class will be canceled. In such a case, it is preferable to hold the class as usual, and the attendees should light Ĥanuka candles afterward, because the mitzva of Torah study takes precedence over the value of lighting candles at the ideal time (see n. 13).

07. Waiting for a Family Member

In many families, the question arises as to the appropriate procedure when one’s spouse cannot make it home from work by tzeit. Is it better to light at tzeit or to wait for his or her return?

Technically, it is not necessary for both spouses to be present for candle-lighting. When either one of them lights candles in their home, they have both fulfilled their obligation. Therefore, it would seem preferable for one to light at tzeit. Nevertheless, in practice it is preferable in most cases to wait for the spouse to return home. In general, there are three primary considerations that would lead us to delay candle-lighting until both spouses are home.

First, if the husband will not hear the berakhot of candle-lighting at the synagogue or elsewhere, although he will have fulfilled the obligation to light through his wife’s lighting, some maintain that as long as he has not heard the berakha of She-asa Nisim, he has not fulfilled his duty to thank God. Therefore, if there is nowhere else for him to hear the berakhot, it is preferable to wait for him. (The same is true if the wife is not home at tzeit, and the husband is waiting.)

Second, the husband or wife may feel insulted or upset if the candles were lit without them. Third, there may be a concern that the connection of the absent spouse to the mitzva will be weakened. This consideration is pertinent when one spouse regularly comes home late from work. If one will not be present for candle-lighting on all or most of the days of the holiday, one’s connection to the mitzva is liable to be weakened.

This third consideration is particularly significant for families that follow the Sephardic custom (above, 12:3), according to which only one member of each household lights. When there is concern that if the parents do not wait for their children to return home for lighting, the children’s connection to the mitzva may weaken, the parents should wait for them.

Thus, the only case in which it is preferable to light the candles at tzeit is if the delayed husband or wife will be able to hear the berakhot elsewhere and if this delay is an isolated occurrence and will therefore not cause marital discord or weaken the absent spouse’s bond to the mitzva. In all other cases, it is better to wait for both spouses – and in the case of Sephardim, for all members of the household – to be home. However, even then, candle-lighting should not be delayed past 9 pm. Members of the household should not eat a proper meal from half an hour before tzeit until after they have fulfilled the mitzva of candle-lighting (as explained above, 12:10).^[12]

08. Lighting Before Shki’a or Late at Night in Pressing Circumstances

One who was unable to light Ĥanuka candles by 9 pm may light all night until dawn. However, he should recite the berakhot only if it is very likely that someone on the street will see his candles, or if someone at home, such as his wife or children, will see them. If, however, his family members have gone to sleep and would be upset if he were to wake them, and if it is unlikely that anyone will see his candles from the street, he should light without berakhot.^[13]

If one did not light all night, he has lost out on the mitzva of that day. Nevertheless, the next day he should light just like anyone else (Rema 672:2).

Even though, as we have seen, on Friday we light the Ĥanuka candles before shki’a, on a regular weekday one should not light before shki’a. Only when there is no alternative may one light candles as early as plag ha-minĥa. For example, if one needs to leave home before shki’a, there is no one at home who can light on his behalf, and he will return very late at night when no one will be around to see the candles, since he has no alternative, he may light the candles as early as plag ha-minĥa (about forty minutes in Israel) before sunset. According to most poskim, he should even recite the berakhot when he lights. If one needs to leave home even earlier, in pressing circumstances he may light as early as an hour before shki’a, but he should light without the berakhot in such a case.^[14]

09. Guests

When a family is visiting friends or relatives at candle-lighting time, then even though they are eating dinner at their hosts’ home, it is not considered their home for the purpose of candle-lighting, so they cannot fulfill their obligation to light Ĥanuka candles there. When possible, it is best if one member of the family goes home to light at tzeit and fulfills the obligation for the whole family. Additionally, the remaining family members who do not return home should make sure to hear the berakhot and see the candles at their hosts’ home in order to participate in thanking God for the miracle. If the family is far from home and no one is able to return home to light, they should wait to light with the berakhot until they get home. If they wish to eat before then, they should agree to remind one another of the need to light when they return home.^[15]

However, if the family is planning to both eat and sleep at their hosts’ home, then it is considered their temporary home and they can fulfill their obligation through the hosts’ lighting. They should make sure to buy a share in the candles by paying their hosts the value of at least a pruta (a token amount of money) toward the cost. Alternatively, the host can give them a share in the candles as a gift, which the guests can acquire by lifting the candles.

According to Ashkenazic custom, in order to fulfill the mitzva in the manner of mehadrin min ha-mehadrin, every family member should light. Thus, even when they are guests in their hosts’ home, each guest should light his own candles with the berakhot.

If the hosts have given their guests a separate residence for their visit, according to all customs the guests should light Ĥanuka candles there with the berakhot. They should try to light where passersby will be able to see the candles, in order to publicize the miracle more effectively.^[16]

10. Guests on Shabbat Ĥanuka

When a family goes away for Shabbat, the hosts’ home is considered their home on that Shabbat. Thus, the guests should buy a share in the host’s candles for a pruta, which allows them to fulfill their obligation through the host’s lighting. According to the Ashkenazic custom, it is still preferable for the guests to light their own candles with the berakhot. If the family is staying in a separate residence, according to all customs it is proper for them to light there with the berakhot.

On Saturday night, if the guests plan to return home quickly, it is best for them to wait to light candles at home. If they plan to get home so late that people will no longer be walking on the streets, it is preferable that they fulfill the mitzva the same way they did on Friday, either through their host’s lighting or in the separate residence. If they are not returning home immediately but will still arrive home before it is too late, they may choose where to light. From the perspective of the previous day, their place is in their hosts’ home; but from the perspective of the upcoming day, their place is in their own home. Therefore, they may choose where they wish to light.^[17]

11. A Married Person Who Is Away from Home

If a married man goes alone on Ĥanuka to visit friends or family while his wife remains at home, his wife must light the candles, and this exempts him from lighting. Nevertheless, even though he fulfills his obligation to light, some maintain that he does not fulfill his obligation to publicize the miracle and to see the candles. Therefore, he should hear the berakhot and see the candles in his hosts’ home or in the synagogue in order to participate in thanking God for the miracle (as explained above, ch 12 n. 6).

If the married guest wishes to light candles himself, according to Ashkenazic custom he may do so with the berakhot, but he should try to light before his wife lights at home. According to Sephardic custom, he should not light.^[18]

If he is staying in a hotel or in an empty apartment, even if his wife is lighting candles at home, he should light where he is. According to Ashkenazic custom, he should recite the berakhot; according to Sephardic custom, if he is in Israel he should not recite the berakhot, while if he is abroad he should recite them.^[19]

A married soldier on reserve duty does not need to light candles, as his wife is lighting on behalf of both of them at home. He should hear the berakhot from a different soldier who is lighting. If no one on the base is lighting, he should light in the mess hall with the berakhot. Even if he follows Sephardic custom, in this case it is a mitzva to light candles for the rest of the unmarried soldiers. If everyone at the base is observant, married, and has someone lighting at home on his behalf, the above does not apply. Nevertheless, in such a case, if there are ten people present, they should light candles at the base’s synagogue with the berakhot.

The law that a married man fulfills his obligation through his wife’s lighting applies as long as she remains at home. However, if she is a guest elsewhere (for example, in her parents’ home), her husband is once again obligated to light. In such a case, according to all customs he must light where he is with the berakhot.

Similarly, if a woman is away and her husband is lighting at home, she fulfills her obligation through his lighting. She should try to be present when her hosts light candles at their home. If she is alone in a hotel, she should light candles herself. According to Ashkenazic custom, she should recite the berakhot; according to Sephardic custom, she should not.

12. Unmarried People who Live Alone

As a rule, the laws of candle-lighting for independent, unmarried people are the same as those for a family unit (section 9 above). Therefore, if an unmarried person has his own home, regardless of whether it is owned or rented, he must light candles there. If he is visiting friends at candle-lighting time but will return home to sleep, he cannot fulfill his obligation at his hosts’ home. Rather, he must return home to light. (See sections 6-8 above for the proper times to light candles, le-khatĥila and be-di’avad.)

If an unmarried person will be staying for the night as well, his status depends on where he is sleeping. If he will be sleeping in the hosts’ home, he should pay the host the value of a pruta toward the cost of the candles (or the host may give him a share in the candles as a gift) and he can fulfill his obligation through the host’s lighting. According to Ashkenazic custom, it is better if he lights his own candles with the berakhot, thus fulfilling the custom of mehadrin min ha-mehadrin. If the unmarried guest was given a separate residence for sleeping, according to all customs he should light there with the berakhot.^[20]

13. Yeshiva Students, Soldiers, and College Students

A yeshiva student who sleeps in his dormitory room and eats in a cafeteria must light in his room, because he resides there for an extended period and the room is set aside for him. If the dormitory room has a window facing the street, he should light in the window to publicize the miracle. If there is no window facing the street, he should light inside his room, preferably to the left of the doorway, so that the mezuza will be on the right and the Ĥanuka candles on the left.^[21]

An uncertainty arises regarding Sephardic students. According to Sephardic custom, the way to beautify the mitzva is for the head of the household to light for the entire household. Furthermore, according to many poskim, the true home of a yeshiva student is his parents’ home, even though he lives at the yeshiva. His parents’ home is where he returns regularly, and where he goes when he is sick. Therefore, even when he is at the yeshiva, he fulfills his obligation to light through his father’s lighting at home.

On the other hand, some maintain that since the student lives in the yeshiva most of the year, he is considered an independent person with his own home, and thus he must light candles in the yeshiva with the berakhot. Following Sephardic custom, one student should light for himself and all his roommates. The roommates who do not light must either pay the value of a pruta toward the cost of the candles or acquire a share in them.^[22]

The laws that apply to a yeshiva student also apply to soldiers and college students. According to the custom of all Ashkenazim and some Sephardim, a soldier or a college student should light in his room with the berakhot. The custom of most Sephardim is that such a person relies on his parents’ lighting. If no one else is lighting in the dorm room, he should light without a berakha. The same pertains to female students studying at seminaries or universities, who live in a dormitory or in a rented apartment. The custom of all Ashkenazim and some Sephardim is to light with the berakhot, and the custom of most Sephardim is to rely on their parents’ lighting. If no one else is lighting in the dormitory room, they should light without the berakhot.^[23]

14. Hotels

People staying in a hotel must light Ĥanuka candles. Let us briefly review what we explained in the previous sections. Whole families and independent unmarried people must light with the berakhot. If one’s spouse is lighting at home, or if one is dependent on one’s parents who are lighting at home, then according to Sephardic custom one should light without the berakhot, while according to Ashkenazic custom one should light with the berakhot.

It is best to light in one’s hotel room, as this room is set aside for personal use, as opposed to the dining room, which is for communal use. If the hotel room has a window facing the street, one should light there. Someone should remain in the room for at least half an hour after one lights, so the candles are not left unattended and a fire is not caused as a result. If, after half an hour, one wants to leave the room, one should put out any candles that are still lit. If the hotel management does not permit guests to light candles in their rooms, then since there is no alternative one should light in the dining room.^[24]

15. Hospital Patients

A patient in a hospital is still obligated to light Ĥanuka candles. However, if he is married, he fulfills his obligation through his spouse’s lighting at home. Likewise, if he is young and lives with his parents, he fulfills his obligation through his parents’ lighting at home. According to Ashkenazic custom, even though one has fulfilled his obligation through his family members’ lighting, if he wishes to beautify the mitzva he may light in his hospital room with the berakhot, as explained above (section 11). According to the custom of most Sephardim, he should not light candles (notes 19 and 22; above 12:3).

One who lights candles in a hospital should preferably light in his room, which is designated for him specifically. If he lights in the cafeteria, he fulfills his obligation, as it is considered his home to some degree while he is hospitalized.

A patient who is exempt from lighting because someone is lighting for them at home should still try to see Ĥanuka candles and hear the berakhot, because some maintain that even though someone is lighting for him at home, which allows him to fulfill the mitzva of lighting candles, nevertheless he has not fulfilled the mitzva of thanking God for the miracle (above 12:6 and n. 5). Therefore, he should find someone who is lighting with the berakhot (whether out of strict halakhic obligation or Ashkenazic custom) and listen to his berakhot with the intention of fulfilling the obligation to recite the berakha of She-asa Nisim. On the first night of Ĥanuka, he should have in mind to fulfill the obligation of She-heĥeyanu as well.

16. Fields and Vehicles

The poskim disagree about whether the obligation to light Ĥanuka candles is limited to the home. Some argue that the Sages ordained that only one who has a home must light candles. Therefore, one who lives on the street cannot fulfill the mitzva. Similarly, one who is hiking or camping and intends to sleep in a field, or a soldier who is living in a tent that is too small to qualify as a house (about two square meters), cannot fulfill the mitzva. Others maintain that even one who does not have a home must light candles wherever he is.

Since there is uncertainty in these cases, one who does not have a home should light without the berakhot. For example, one who is hiking or camping on Ĥanuka and sleeps in a field or by the road should light candles without the berakhot. Similarly, a soldier sleeping in a trench or a small tent should light without the berakhot. However, if a hiker or soldier is sleeping in a large tent, he should light with the berakhot at the tent’s entrance, as the tent is considered a home.

One who is traveling through the night on a train, a plane, or a ship with cabins should light with the berakhot. Even though he is in transit, the inside of the train, plane, or ship is considered a home for the purpose of lighting Ĥanuka candles. However, sometimes safety considerations do not allow for lighting candles. If those in charge allow one passenger to light one candle for everyone, all the passengers have fulfilled their obligation.^[25]

01. Joy and Kindness

On Purim, we are commanded: “To observe them as days of feasting and joy, of sending gifts (mishlo’aĥ manot) to one another, and presents to the poor (matanot la-evyonim)” (Esther 9:22).

The mitzva to rejoice on Purim is quite unique, as it finds expression even in the physical aspects of life. Just as Haman’s decree targeted our soul and body alike, so too our joy over our salvation should be both spiritual and physical. Therefore, in addition to the mitzva of reading the Megilla, which gives expression to man’s spiritual side, there is a mitzva to prepare a festive and joyous meal (se’uda). During this meal, an emphasis is placed on drinking wine to the point where one loses his mental capacity to a certain degree. This expresses the notion that the Jewish people are holy and that even in a state of diminished mental capacity, they remain connected and close to God.

This joy must be accompanied by a heightened sense of love and unity among Jews. This is true joy, as it expresses a broadening of life and its spread through the love of all people. However, one who eats and drinks for their own sake is considered narrow and limited, preoccupied only with gratifying his own desires; such a person will never attain genuine joy. Thus, we are commanded to send gifts of food, mishlo’aĥ manot, to one another.

We should not content ourselves with increasing love among friends; rather, we must also care about the destitute, who are unable to rejoice fully. Therefore, we are commanded to give gifts to the poor, matanot la-evyonim, so that they too can take part in the joy of Purim. Anyone who disregards the pain of the destitute – even if he thinks that he is enjoying himself with his friends – is in reality engaged in debauchery, ignoring the realities of life. He flees thoughts about the suffering in this world so that he can have some fleeting happiness. But the harsh reality will not disappear when he drinks wine and becomes intoxicated. Therefore, deep down, he knows that he does not deserve to be happy, and he will remain miserable. However, if one makes sure to bring joy to the poor and unfortunate, his life has value, and he can truly and rightfully rejoice. This is why we were commanded to give gifts to the poor on Purim.

02. Jewish Unity on Purim

Purim is a special day for displaying Jewish unity. Haman’s decree was aimed at the entire Jewish people, with no distinction between righteous and wicked, poor and rich. One can learn from the ambitions of Israel’s enemies – to kill every single Jew – that the unique properties of Israel inhere in every Jew. God saved us all, and in so doing, transformed our grief into joy. Therefore, the joyous celebration of Purim must include every Jew. Accordingly, we are commanded to give mishlo’aĥ manot and matanot la-evyonim.

Moreover, the disunity of the Jewish people at the time enabled Haman to denounce them before King Aĥashverosh: “There is a certain people, scattered and dispersed among the other peoples in all the provinces of your realm…. If it please Your Majesty, let an edict be drawn for their destruction” (Esther 3:8-9). Similarly, Haman’s decree was foiled by Jewish solidarity, as Esther said to Mordechai, “Go, assemble all the Jews who live in Shushan, and fast in my behalf; do not eat or drink for three days, night or day” (ibid. 4:16). In this way, Esther succeeded in nullifying the decree.

Indeed, Jewish unity is a precondition for receiving the Torah, as it says in reference to the giving of the Torah, “Israel encamped (vayiĥan) there in front of the mountain” (Shemot 19:2). Noting the verse’s use of the singular verb vayiĥan, the Sages explain that Israel encamped there “like one man with one heart” (Rashi). They did this “so that they would love each other, and thereby receive the Torah” (Mekhilta ad loc.). Only then did God say, “Behold, the time has come for Me to give the Torah to My children” (Vayikra Rabba 9:9). Just as a Torah scroll that is missing a single letter is entirely invalid, so too, if one of the 600,000 Jews who stood at Mount Sinai when the Torah was given would have been missing, we would not have been privileged to receive the Torah. The same is true of Purim. As a result of the harsh decree that unified the Jewish people, we were redeemed and were even privileged to accept the Torah anew, as the Sages relate that Israel accepted the Torah anew in the time of Aĥashverosh, out of love (Shabbat 88a). The same is true each and every year: We are able to receive the Torah anew, joyously, because of the unity that is revealed on Purim.

03. Matanot La-evyonim

It is a mitzva for each and every Jew to give matanot la-evyonim on Purim. In order to fulfill this mitzva, one must give a minimum of two gifts – one each to two poor people – but it is praiseworthy to give more. The gift may be money or a food item, but not clothing or books, as some say that the gifts must be items that one can enjoy at the Purim se’uda. As such, one should give food items or money that can be used to purchase food. While the gift must be something that can contribute to the Purim feast, the poor person may do with the gift as he pleases. He is not obligated to use the gift specifically as part of his Purim feast (sa 694:1, Rema ad loc. 2, mb ad loc. 2).

Each gift must be worth the amount of money that could be used to purchase ordinary foods that would satiate a person eating a small, simple meal – for example, a sandwich. To discharge one’s obligation, one can give an amount of money that would purchase about three slices of bread for each gift (in Israel, this is about one shekel). This amount of bread is approximately equivalent to the volume of three eggs, which is enough to minimally satisfy a person. However, giving more matanot la-evyonim is praiseworthy (see below, section 8).

One may not count matanot la-evyonim toward the ma’aser kesafim he owes, as one may not fulfill this obligation with money that he is anyway required to give to charity. However, one may set aside the minimum amount of money per gift and then add to and increase the sum with ma’aser kesafim money.

An evyon is defined by halakha as a poor person who has insufficient funds for his family’s essential needs, as defined by the time and place in which he lives. There were times when a person who had bread to eat and two sets of clothes to wear was not considered poor, whereas today even one who has four sets of clothes and bread and cheese to eat is still considered poor.

One may give matanot la-evyonim even to a poor child, on condition that he is sufficiently intelligent not to lose the money. If one gives the equivalent of two gifts to a poor couple, he fulfills his obligation to give a minimum of two gifts. Similarly, if one gives the equivalent of two gifts to a widow and her young son who is dependent on her, he fulfills his obligation. However, one who gives two gifts to a single poor person does not fulfill his obligation, even if he gives the gifts one after the other, because one must give to two poor people.^[1]

If one does not know two poor people, or if he is embarrassed to give them gifts, he should give his matanot la-evyonim to a reputable gabbai tzedaka (charity fund manager) to distribute to the poor on his behalf. The gabbai must attempt to give these gifts to the poor in a way that will enhance their joy at the Purim meal.^[2]

04. Mishlo’aĥ Manot

Every person must send two gifts of food to a friend on Purim, in order to increase love between them. Increasing love between Jews is part of the essence of Purim, as it was on Purim that the Jewish people’s holiness was revealed. This holiness is expressed in the fact that they cling to God and His Torah, and a spark of this holiness exists in every Jew. Therefore, it is proper to actively express the love between Jews on Purim (see above, section 2).

These gifts must consist of food items in order to enhance the joy of Purim, as it is known that when a person eats good, tasty foods that he received from a friend, the love between them becomes strengthened. Another reason for mishlo’aĥ manot is that some people are not actually poor – they have the ability to purchase basic provisions for the Purim meal – yet are unable to buy foods for a more respectable Purim meal. By sending mishlo’aĥ manot, we can provide them with good food for the Purim meal in an honorable fashion.

The law is that one discharges his obligation by sending two portions of food to one person. The Sages enacted that one must send at least two portions so that the gift will be an expression of love. After all, a single portion of food can help a friend avoid hunger, but when one sends two portions, it means that he wants his friend to enjoy a variety of foods as well. One who gives more mishloĥei manot in order to increase feelings of love, brotherhood, peace, and friendship between oneself and one’s friends is praiseworthy.^[3]

05. Types of Foods for Mishlo’aĥ Manot

The two food portions must be different from each other. For example, one may send bread and meat, meat and rice, fish and eggs, or cake and apples. One may also send two portions of meat with different flavors, like cooked meat and roasted meat, or two cooked meats taken from different parts of the animal, such that their taste and shape differ. Similarly, one may send two types of cake, provided that they look and taste different from each other.

One who sends his friend a garment or a book does not fulfill his obligation. Even though these items surely bring joy and express love, the portions must consist of food items. However, once one fulfills his obligation with two food portions, he may add additional gifts, if he desires, in order to increase the level of love and brotherhood.

One who sends a live fowl to his friend does not fulfill his obligation, because it is not edible as is; it must first be slaughtered, cut, salted, and cooked. Some maintain that even if one sends raw, uncooked meat, he does not fulfill his obligation. Rather, one must send food portions that are ready to be eaten. One may send canned foods, because one can easily open the can and eat its contents.

Most poskim maintain that a bottle of a noteworthy drink, such as wine, beer, or a tasty juice, is considered a suitable food portion. Therefore, one may fulfill his obligation by sending two such drinks. However, some rule stringently and maintain that a drink is not considered a food portion. Even though the halakha follows the majority of poskim, one who wishes to discharge his obligation according to all viewpoints should send at least one mishlo’aĥ manot containing two portions of food.

Each portion must contain an amount of food worthy of being served to a guest in a respectable manner (ahs 695:15). Thus, a single plum, for example, is not a large enough portion with which to honor a guest. Therefore, a person who wants one of his portions to consist of plums must combine a few plums together in order for them to be considered a food portion.

Some maintain that the volume of each portion must be equivalent to approximately three eggs’ volume. Others add that the portions must be significant according to the status of the giver and the recipient. That is, if they are wealthy, the portions must be distinguished and enjoyable according to their prestige. If, however, they do not view the portions as significant, they fail to fulfill their obligation. Le-khatĥila, one should take care to ensure that each food portion contains a volume equivalent to at least three eggs and that it should be significant and respectable in the eyes of both the sender and the recipient.^[4]