05. Women and Torah Study on Shabbat

There is a fundamental difference between men’s and women’s obligation to study Torah. Men, even after they have learned all of halakha and the fundamentals of faith, are still obligated to set aside time to study Torah and to review and deepen what they have learned. The directive, “Let not this Book of the Torah cease from your lips; study it day and night” (Yehoshua 1:8) is directed at them. Although all week when they are busy at work they fulfill their obligation to study Torah with one chapter of any Torah text studied during the day and another at night (Menaĥot 99b), on Shabbat men must fulfill the verse according to its straightforward meaning, as the Sages said: “You should dedicate Shabbat to Torah alone” (Tanna De-vei Eliyahu §1; above section 1).

Women are not obligated to set aside time for Torah study, but they are obligated to know what the Torah says about how to live life, so that Torah will illuminate and guide their paths in the realms of halakha as well as theology and morals. A woman who can accomplish this with a minimal amount of study need do no more, while one who needs to study a great deal in order to achieve this must do so. This depends on the woman’s disposition and also varies by era. There were times when a small amount of learning was sufficient for most women; but nowadays, when life is more complicated and general wisdom has proliferated, women must study more halakha, theology, and works of moral instruction (Peninei Halakha: Collected Essays I 1:16).

Since women are not obligated to set aside time to study Torah every day and every night, they are also not obligated to dedicate half of Shabbat to learning. However, since Torah makes both men and women happy, there is a mitzva for women to study Torah on Shabbat because it is included in spiritual oneg Shabbat. Additionally, women are obligated to study halakha and theology. As Shabbat is both a holy day and the day on which the Torah was given, it is a fitting time for Torah study and an appropriate time for women to set aside to study halakha and theology. Nevertheless, since according to the letter of the law they are not obligated to set aside time to study Torah, in the years when they are busy with childcare they do not have to set aside time to learn on Shabbat. However, women who are not busy taking care of children should study a great deal on Shabbat, in a joyful and relaxed manner. Even women who are busy around the house should try to set aside some time to study Torah on Shabbat. Participating in Torah classes is recommended, since women also need the Torah’s guidance. At the time of the Sages, there were women who attended the Shabbat drasha; sometimes the derashot were long and the women came home late.^[2]

It is wonderful if a couple enjoys studying Torah together. Through their joint learning they merit the presence of the divine, and invite Torah to serve as their guide for life. But a couple who have trouble learning together should not feel bad about it, because sometimes the great love that they share may make it difficult for them to concentrate on learning together.

06. Reading the Torah on Shabbat

An ordinance tracing back to Moshe mandates that Jews read from holy Torah scrolls written in ink on parchment every Shabbat, Monday, and Thursday (BK 82a). Due to the holiness and exaltedness of Shabbat, the Sages instituted that seven people should be called up to read from it, corresponding to the seven days of the week (Megilla 21a). In talmudic times, it took communities in Eretz Yisrael three years to cycle through the entire Torah, while in Babylonia it was completed annually. The current custom throughout the Jewish world is to complete the Torah each year on Simĥat Torah. This is done by reading the weekly parsha each Shabbat. Each of the seven people called up to the Torah reads part of the parsha (referred to as an aliya); together they complete the entire parsha. If one Shabbat a congregation is unable to read the parsha, the next week it must read two parshiyot and make up for the one missed (Rema 135:2).^[3]

If a congregation wishes to call up more than seven people to read, they may do so as long as each person reads a minimum of three verses. Some maintain that nowadays one should not add to the seven because that involves reciting additional berakhot – more than were instituted by the Sages. It used to be that the first person called up would recite a berakha before reading and the last person called up would recite a berakha after reading, but all the people called up in the middle would not recite berakhot. Later on it was instituted that everyone called up should recite a berakha before and after their aliya. This was due to concern that people who arrived or left in the middle of the Torah reading would not realize that a berakha was recited at the beginning and end of the parsha. Accordingly, nowadays each person who is called up recites two berakhot. Thus it is improper to add additional aliyot, which would involve the recitation of even more berakhot, beyond those instituted by the Sages. Furthermore, it is also important not to burden the congregation by extending the prayer service. Therefore, ideally a congregation should not add to the seven aliyot. However, in a time of need and to avoid offending someone deeply, one may do so (SA 282:1-2; MB ad loc. 4-5).

Technically, an aliya may be given to a minor who is old enough to know to Whom berakhot are addressed. This is on condition that the majority of the seven people called up are adults. There are Sephardim who follow this position (SA 282:2; Yeĥaveh Da’at 4:23). The Ashkenazic custom, and that of some Sephardim as well, is not to call up a minor to the Torah. There are some Sephardim who follow the position of Arizal and call up a minor for the seventh aliya but for no others (see MB 282:12; Kaf Ha-ĥayim ad loc. 22). The Yemenite custom is to call up a minor for the sixth aliya.

07. The Haftara

The Sages instituted that in addition to the Torah reading, there should also be a public reading from the Prophets on a topic related either to the Torah reading or to the time of year. One berakha is made before this reading, and four afterward. This reading is called the haftara, meaning “conclusion,” for with it the Torah reading concludes.

The haftara was instituted following an imperial decree that Jews may not read from the Torah, on penalty of death. However, since the decree did not apply to reading from the Prophets, the Sages of that time instituted that congregations read from the Prophets instead of the Torah. They further instituted that the reading from the Prophets be modeled on the Torah reading, with berakhot before and after, and with seven aliyot. After the decree was rescinded and Torah reading resumed, the Sages ordained that congregations continue reading from the Prophets each week, but now special berakhot were established for it. Since while the decree was in place they had had seven people reading from the Prophets, each reading a minimum of three verses, they instituted that the maftir (the person who reads the haftara) should read a minimum of 21 verses. However, if the selected passage from the Prophets is shorter than 21 verses, we conclude the reading when the subject is finished, even if it is fewer than 21 verses (SA 284:1; MB ad loc. 2).

In order to demonstrate that the haftara is not as important as the Torah reading, it was ordained that the maftir should read a few verses from the Torah scroll first, and only then read from the Prophets. Strictly speaking, the seventh oleh may read the haftara, but the custom is to follow the opinion that the maftir should not be one of the seven olim. Therefore, after the seven olim finish reading the parsha, Half-Kaddish is recited, thus concluding the Torah reading. Then the maftir is called up to read a few verses from the Torah scroll, and he then goes on to read the haftara from the Prophets.

Some maintain that just as the Torah is read from a parchment scroll, so too the haftara must be read from a parchment scroll (Levush). However, many Aĥaronim maintain that the haftara may be read from a printed volume. It is better to read it from a volume that has the entire text of the biblical book from which the haftara is excerpted, but if this is not available one may read from a book that has only the verses of the haftara, as is the case with many of our printed ĥumashim (MA; Eliya Rabba; MB 284:1).

Some have a custom that the entire congregation reads the haftara together; however, it is more correct that the person who is called up for maftir or the ĥazan reads it alone, while the congregation listens to his reading. One who wishes to read along in an undertone may do so as long as he does not disturb the person sitting next to him (MB 284:11; BHL ad loc.).

08. Torah Reading at Minĥa on Shabbat

In addition to ordaining the reading of the parsha on Shabbat morning, Ezra the Scribe also instituted that the Torah be read at Minĥa. Three people are called up at Minĥa and the beginning of the next parsha is read. This section is read on Monday and Thursday mornings as well, in preparation for and introduction to the next week’s reading.

The Sages state that this ordinance was on account of “yoshvei keranot” (idlers; lit. “those who sit on corners”) (BK 82a). Some explain this term to refer to merchants and artisans who sat in their stores and did not attend Shaĥarit services during the week. Since they did not hear the Torah reading of Monday and Thursday mornings, they would have been unprepared for the upcoming parsha. To ensure that they would hear the introductory reading at least once, Ezra instituted that it be read at Minĥa on Shabbat, when everyone is able to attend (Rashi; Rosh).

Others explain that Ezra was worried that people would get drunk at Shabbat lunch, and then they would be in no state to learn Torah. Ezra therefore instituted that there be a Torah reading at Minĥa so that out of respect for the reading everyone would congregate in the synagogue. Thus they would neither get drunk nor waste time. Along the same lines, King David said to God: “Master of the Universe, this nation is not like other nations. When other nations have a festive meal they drink and get drunk and act silly. We are not like this, however. Although we eat and drink, we come to pray, as is stated: ‘As for me, may my prayer come to You, O Lord, at a favorable moment; O God, in Your abundant faithfulness, answer me with Your sure deliverance’” (Tehilim 69:14). This is why we recite this verse before reading the Torah at Minĥa (Shibolei Ha-leket).^[4]

09. Shnayim Mikra Ve-eĥad Targum

In addition to the communal Torah reading in shul, the Sages also mandated that each week every man should read shnayim mikra ve-eĥad targum (lit. “twice Scripture, once translation”), that is, the parsha twice and the Aramaic translation once. He who does so is granted a longer life (Berakhot 8a). When this reading was instituted, most Jews spoke Aramaic; if they read the Aramaic translation of Onkelos the proselyte, they understood the parsha.

In the course of time the Jews were exiled to various places where other languages were spoken and the Jewish masses no longer knew Aramaic. The question arose: may one read the parsha with a translation into one’s native language or with Rashi’s commentary, instead of the Aramaic translation?

Most poskim maintain that other translations are not as good as Onkelos, which was composed in the tannaitic period and has its roots at Sinai. Thus one does not fulfill his obligation by reading the other ones. In contrast, there is general agreement that one may study Rashi’s commentary in lieu of Onkelos’s translation because Rashi explains the difficult passages in the Torah as the targum does, often in even greater detail. However, there are verses that Rashi does not comment upon. Those verses must be read three times (MB 285:5).

There are some who enhance the mitzva and read the parsha twice, and then read both targum and Rashi. Rashi has the advantages of being more expansive and of quoting from the Sages, while targum has the advantage of being rooted in Sinai. Therefore, the kabbalists write that even for those who do not understand Aramaic there is value in reading Onkelos (SA 285:2).

The time frame for these readings begins with Minĥa of the prior Shabbat, when the beginning of the upcoming parsha is read. It continues throughout the week until Shabbat lunch. We are told that R. Yehuda Ha-nasi instructed his children not to eat lunch on Shabbat before they had completed shnayim mikra ve-eĥad targum. One who already ate lunch should complete his reading by Minĥa, when the beginning of the next parsha is read. If one was unable to finish even by then, he should finish by the end of Tuesday, since the first three days of the week are connected to the previous Shabbat. If one did not finish by then, he must make sure to finish before Simĥat Torah, when we celebrate finishing the Torah reading for the year (SA 285:4).

10. Different Customs Relating to Shnayim Mikra Ve-eĥad Targum

Some customarily read shnayim mikra ve-eĥad targum on Friday and try to do the entire reading without stopping (Arizal; Shlah; Kaf Ha-ĥayim 285:3; Tur). Others follow the custom of reading one aliya each day of the week, so that on Shabbat they complete the entire parsha (Vilna Gaon; MB 285:8). In any case, anyone who completes shnayim mikra ve-eĥad targum at any point during the week has fulfilled the obligation.

Ideally one reads the Torah text twice, followed by targum. There are two customs as to how to do this. According to Arizal’s custom, one reads each verse twice and then its translation once. Following the custom of Shlah and the Vilna Gaon, one reads each parshiya (a section that in the Torah scroll is offset by spaces) twice and then its Aramaic translation. Both customs are acceptable (MB 285:2; Kaf Ha-ĥayim ad loc. 3).

Be-di’avad, the order is not critical. If one reads the verse, then targum, and then repeats the verse – he fulfills his obligation (Levush; AHS 285:3). Similarly if he reads the parsha out of order from end to beginning, he fulfills his obligation. The main objective is to read all the verses twice and the translation once. One teaching parsha to children need not read the verses twice and then the targum, because it is clear that while teaching he reads each verse twice and explains it (SA 285:6).

If one did not manage to complete shnayim mikra ve-eĥad targum before the Shabbat morning Torah reading, in principle he may do so during the Torah reading (SA 285:5). However, some say this is not proper. Therefore it is preferable that he read it quietly together with the Torah reader who is reading it aloud, and that he count this as one reading for the purpose of shnayim mikra (MB 285:14). If he heard the Torah reading but did not quietly read along with it, the Aĥaronim disagree whether this counts as one reading (ibid. 2).

One who learns the parsha with Rashi may, if it is easier for him, read an entire parshiya and then go back through it verse by verse with Rashi. However, he must read verses with no comments by Rashi an additional time, so that he reads them a total of three times. If he wishes, he can read the text twice with Rashi’s commentary, and then during the Torah reading he may read the parsha quietly together with the Torah reader, which will complete the third time for those verses upon which there are no comments by Rashi.

Women are exempt from the obligations of Torah reading and shnayim mikra ve-eĥad targum. Nevertheless, if they wish to participate in the Torah reading and study parsha, they are doing a mitzva (Peninei Halakha: Women’s Prayer 2:10).

11. Shabbat Prayers

The Amida on Shabbat is made up of seven berakhot. The formulation of the first and last three berakhot is identical to their weekday versions, but in place of the thirteen berakhot in the middle we recite one special berakha relating to the sanctity of Shabbat. In it we beseech God to find our rest pleasing and to sanctify us with His commandments. We conclude this berakha with “Blessed are You, O Lord, Who sanctifies Shabbat” (“mekadesh ha-Shabbat”). The introduction to this Shabbat berakha was formulated differently by the Sages for each of the prayer services of Shabbat. At Ma’ariv it is “Ata Kidashta” (“You have sanctified”), “Yismaĥ Moshe” (“Moshe rejoiced”) at Shaĥarit, and Ata Eĥad (“You are one”) at Minĥa. One who got confused and recited the wrong berakha – for example, he used the Minĥa formulation during Ma’ariv – has fulfilled his obligation, since the central berakhot of all three prayers share common themes and formulations (SA 268:6; MB ad loc. 14).

Technically, on Shabbat one could say all of the berakhot one usually says during the weekday, and simply add a special berakha for Shabbat. Nevertheless, the Sages wished to honor Shabbat and to avoid burdening the people with lengthy prayers (Berakhot 21a). Furthermore, it is not appropriate to make requests on Shabbat, since they might cause one sorrow (Tanĥuma; Rashi; Rambam). Therefore the Sages reduced Shabbat’s middle berakhot from thirteen to one. However, if one mistakenly started to say the berakhot from the weekday Amida, and then remembered in the middle of one of the berakhot, he should finish the berakha and then shift to the Shabbat formulation. Since the weekday berakha is still relevant, and he has already begun it, it is proper that he finish it (SA 268:2). If he made a mistake and did not say the berakha about Shabbat, as long as he has not finished the Amida he can go back to the Shabbat berakha and continue from there until the end of the Amida. However, if he already finished the Amida, even if he has not yet stepped backward, he must repeat the Amida from the beginning (ibid. 5).

The Sages also established an additional prayer service on Shabbat – Musaf – corresponding to the extra sacrifices that were offered on Shabbat during Temple times. In this Amida too, the first three and last three berakhot are the same as those of every Amida, but in the middle there is a special berakha about the Musaf sacrifice and the sanctity of Shabbat.^[5]

12. Va-yekhulu

In the Amida of Ma’ariv on Friday night we recite the “Va-yekhulu” passage, the three verses that recount the first Shabbat of creation:

The heaven and the earth were finished (va-yekhulu), and all their array. On the seventh day God finished the work that He had been doing, and He ceased on the seventh day from all the work that He had done. And God blessed the seventh day and declared it holy, because on it God ceased from all the work of creation that He had done. (Bereishit 2:1-3)

The Sages tell us that one who recites Va-yekhulu on Friday night becomes like God’s partner in the world’s creation (Shabbat 119b). The purpose of creation is for God to be revealed to the world, and bless it as a result. This is the primary idea of Shabbat. When a Jew attests to the creation of the world and the sanctity of Shabbat by reciting Va-yekhulu, he realizes the purpose of creation and increases blessing in the world.

The Sages add (ibid.) that one who recites Va-yekhulu on Friday night is escorted home by two ministering angels, who rest their hands upon his head and say: “Your guilt shall depart and your sin be purged” (Yeshayahu 6:7). Shabbat is also connected to teshuva – repentance or return. This is expressed in the phonetic similarity of “Shabbat” and “teshuva.” Indeed, on Shabbat we remember the Creator of the world, and we return to all the positive strivings of our souls. One who recites Va-yekhulu on Friday night gives expression to the deep significance of Shabbat. By doing so he merits true repentance and the forgiveness of his sins.

In addition to reciting Va-yekhulu silently in the Amida of Ma’ariv, after the conclusion of the Amida the congregation repeats Va-yekhulu out loud while standing (SA 268:7). The reason for this is that when Yom Tov coincides with Shabbat, the Ma’ariv service follows the Yom Tov formulation. The sanctity of Shabbat is then mentioned only briefly, and Va-yekhulu is not recited in the Amida. In order to avoid skipping Va-yekhulu on those Shabbatot, the Sages instituted the recitation of Va-yekhulu after the Amida each week. Some suggest an additional reason for its recitation – it is a public testimonial to the creation of the world.^[6]

Va-yekhulu is recited yet again in kiddush. We often find that something important is repeated three times.

13. Magen Avot – A Concise Recap of the Amida

The Sages ordained that the ĥazan recite the berakha known as “Me’ein Sheva” on Friday night. This berakha is like a ĥazan’s repetition, as it is a synopsis of the seven berakhot of the Shabbat Amida. The reason for this is that synagogues were (sometimes) built in the fields, and it was dangerous to return home from them at night. The Sages were worried that if one was late or slow and finished his recitation of the Amida after the rest of the congregation, he would have to walk home alone, thus endangering himself. Therefore, they instituted that the ĥazan say this berakha in order to extend the service. This would allow those who fell behind to finish their Amida and return home with the rest of the congregation.

Even though for over a thousand years now synagogues have not been built in the fields, the ordinance stands, and in every synagogue the ĥazan recites this berakha after the Amida. However, if a minyan is convened in a private home, such as for a bridegroom or a mourner, it is not recited, since the ordinance was made only for a synagogue (SA 268:10).

Some say, however, that the talmudic Sages had an additional, esoteric rationale: on Shabbat, it is necessary to include something akin to a ĥazan’s repetition even at Ma’ariv. Consequently, the ordinance is not limited to a synagogue, but is relevant anywhere there is a minyan (Ben Ish Ĥai; Kaf Ha-ĥayim 268:50). This is the custom of those who regularly follow kabbalistic practices. But the rest of the poskim follow the first approach and maintain that Me’ein Sheva is not recited in a place that does not have a regular minyan. Only in the holy city of Jerusalem do they say Me’ein Sheva even at an impromptu minyan, because the entire city is considered a synagogue.^[7]

This berakha is the provenance of the ĥazan. Therefore, in a place where the congregation recites the stanza beginning with the words “Magen avot” aloud, the ĥazan must repeat it by himself (MB 268:22).

The Aĥaronim disagree whether the ĥazan must bow at the beginning of Me’ein Sheva. Some say that since this berakha is in lieu of the ĥazan’s repetition, it follows the same rules, and he must bow at its beginning just as he bows at the beginning of the Amida. Others maintain that it is not the same as the ĥazan’s repetition, and thus it is unnecessary for him to bow at the beginning. Everyone should follow his custom.^[8]

14. Kabbalat Shabbat and Other Additions to the Prayers

More than 400 years ago, kabbalists in Tzefat began to usher in Shabbat with the recitation of psalms and liturgical poems. Since Jews desire to give expression to their neshama yeteira, this custom was accepted throughout the Jewish world; this is the origin of the Kabbalat Shabbat service. At that time R. Shlomo Alkabetz was alive, and he composed the wonderful poem Lekha Dodi, which is used today to welcome Shabbat in all synagogues.

Arizal would go out to the fields to greet Shabbat, facing the west where the sun was setting. The Sages tell us (BB 25a) that the primary revelation of the Shekhina (Divine Presence) is in the west. This custom of turning westward when reciting the last stanza of Lekha Dodi and saying “bo’i kalla” (“welcome, bride”) became accepted in synagogues. Following this logic, even if the entrance to the synagogue faces a different direction, those praying within still face west. However, some are accustomed to turn to the entrance to the synagogue even if it does not face west, thereby expressing that Shabbat is like a guest coming through the doorway.^[9]

There is an early custom, dating to the period of the Rishonim, to recite the second chapter of Mishna Shabbat (beginning with the words, and thus entitled, “Ba-meh Madlikin”) (SA 270:1). This is because near the end of the chapter there is a statement of the Sages that one must say three things in his home Friday as night falls: “Did you tithe? Did you make an eruv? Light candles!” The custom to read this chapter, though, is not universal. Some have a custom to read the section from the Zohar called “Ke-gavna.”

There is a custom dating to the period of the Rishonim to add psalms to the Pesukei De-zimra section that introduces Shaĥarit. They chose psalms that mention the creation of the world and the giving of the Torah, since Shabbat is a remembrance of the creation of the world, and the Torah was given on Shabbat. Before Yishtabaĥ, the berakha that concludes Pesukei De-zimra, we add the prayer of Nishmat Kol Ĥai. It mentions the Exodus from Egypt, one of the things of which Shabbat reminds us (Tur §281; Levush).^[10]

Women are exempt from praying in a minyan and from reciting the rabbinic additions to the prayers, but must recite Birkhot Ha-shaĥar (the morning berakhot) and the Amida of Shaĥarit and Minĥa. If they pray only one Amida in a day, they have fulfilled their obligation. When circumstances are not ideal, women can fulfill their obligation with the recitation of just Birkhot Ha-shaĥar (Peninei Halakha: Women’s Prayer 2:5). If a woman is able, it is preferable for her to attend the synagogue on Shabbat (ibid. 20:2).

15. The Custom of Wishing One’s Rabbi “Shabbat Shalom”

“R. Yitzĥak stated: One must visit his rabbi on the three pilgrimage festivals” (RH 16b). This is in order to strengthen his connection to the rabbi, as a result of which he will strengthen his commitment to Torah and mitzvot. It is very fitting on the holy days to strengthen one’s connection with those who are bearers of Torah. Indeed, it is an age-old custom to do so, as we see from the words of the Shunamite woman’s husband. When he saw his wife setting off to see Elisha the Prophet on a weekday, he asked: “Why are you going to him today? It is neither New Moon nor Shabbat” (2 Melakhim 4:23). This implies that on Rosh Ĥodesh and Shabbat she did go to see the prophet (the current equivalent of whom would be the rabbi).

The Rishonim explain that the precise parameters of this mitzva depend upon geography. If one lives far away from his rabbi, he must visit him at a minimum on the three festivals, as R. Yitzĥak stated. One who lives nearer by should visit him at least once a month. One who lives very close must visit him every Shabbat (based on Rabbeinu Ĥananel and Ritva; see BHL 301:4 s.v. “lehakbil”). Based on this, the custom nowadays is to go over to the local rabbi at the end of prayers and wish him “Shabbat Shalom.” It would seem that those who go to hear the rabbi’s drasha are also counted among those who go to visit him.

R. Yehuda Kook explained that even though women are not obligated to study all of the details and minutiae of Torah, their general attitude toward Torah and those who study it is better than that of men. It is a fact that before the Torah was given at Sinai, God commanded Moshe to address the women first and only afterward the men, as it is written, “Thus shall you say to the house of Yaakov and declare to the children of Israel” (Shemot 19:3). “The house of Jacob” refers to the women, while “the house of Israel” refers to the men (Mekhilta).

It is not by chance then that the mitzva of visiting one’s rabbi on Shabbat and holidays is derived from the actions of the Shunamite woman. For, it would seem that the general attitude of women toward Torah is deeper than that of the men. The men occupy themselves more with the details of the laws and commandments of the Torah, while women connect more with the overall spirit of the Torah (Peninei Halakha: Women’s Prayer ch. 3 and 7:2).

01. Zakhor and Shamor

As we have seen above (1:8), there are two crucial mitzvot that form the backbone of Shabbat: Zakhor and Shamor.

Shamor instructs us to refrain from all labor. In this way we clear space in our soul, which we are commanded to fill with positive content. This positive content is included in Zakhor, which instructs us to remember the holiness of Shabbat and use it to connect with the foundations of our faith. For six days we are active in the outside world; on Shabbat we return to our inner world, to our soul, and remind ourselves once again of the fundamentals of faith.

The first fundamental that we recall during kiddush is the creation of the world, and the second is the Exodus from Egypt. There are some who concede that God created the world but do not believe that even following creation, God remains responsible for the ongoing existence of the world, which He supervises and manages. At the time of the Exodus, God’s divine providence was very clearly revealed, in a way that made it clear that God reveals Himself to the world by way of the Jewish people. This is the significance of the second foundational belief that we mention in kiddush.

These two foundational beliefs are mentioned in the Torah’s two versions of the Ten Commandments. In Shemot we are commanded to remember the creation of the world: “Commemorate the day of Shabbat to sanctify it…. For in six days the Lord made heaven and earth and sea, and all that is in them, and He rested on the seventh day. Therefore the Lord blessed Shabbat day and hallowed it” (Shemot 20:8, 11). However, the mitzva is formulated with the word “shamor” in Devarim, and there the Exodus from Egypt is mentioned: “Observe the day of Shabbat to sanctify it…for you were a slave in the land of Egypt, and the Lord your God freed you from there with a mighty hand and an outstretched arm; therefore the Lord your God has commanded you to keep the day of Shabbat” (Devarim 5:12, 15). In truth, there is a connection between Shabbat and the Exodus from Egypt, for they both reveal the divine soul, which brings about our freedom from enslavement – whether to Egypt or to work.

We fulfill the essence of Zakhor when we recite kiddush over wine, thereby sanctifying the whole day, as it is written: “Commemorate the day of Shabbat to sanctify it” (Shemot 20:8) – the entire day should be sanctified and set aside for reviewing foundational beliefs and studying Torah while eating pleasurable meals and sleeping soundly. Even during the week there is a mitzva to remember Shabbat and sanctify it, meaning it should be honored more than other days. One should prepare for it by making food, laundering, bathing, and cleaning one’s home (See Ramban, Shemot 20:7; above 2:1-6).

Both men and women are obligated in the mitzvot of Shabbat. Although women are generally exempt from time-bound positive commandments, and Zakhor is such a mitzva, women are nevertheless obligated because Zakhor and Shamor were proclaimed together; they are intertwined. Just as women are obligated in the mitzvot derived from Shamor – the negative commandments, so too they are obligated in the mitzvot derived from Zakhor – the positive commandments.

Therefore, men and women are equally obligated in Shabbat mitzvot, and a woman may recite kiddush for a man and exempt him from his obligation. But minors who have not yet reached bat or bar mitzva cannot exempt adults, because even children who are old enough to understand what Shabbat is about are still only obligated rabbinically in kiddush, whereas adults have a Torah obligation (SA 271:2).

02. Fulfilling the Mitzva of Zakhor

One fulfills the Torah obligation of Zakhor by invoking the sanctity of Shabbat and specifying that it commemorates the creation of the world and the Exodus from Egypt. However, the Sages wished for everyone to fulfill this mitzva using a precise and perfect text, so the Men of the Great Assembly formulated a berakha that declares the sanctity of Shabbat. To ensure that kiddush would be both dignified and pleasurable, they mandated that it be recited over a cup of wine prior to a meal. Some maintain that the Torah requires that kiddush be recited over enjoyable food or drink.^[1] It is customary to recite the additional verses of Va-yekhulu (Bereishit 2:1-3) before kiddush (see above 5:12).

Many poskim maintain that Zakhor obligates us to mark the end of Shabbat as well as its beginning. With the onset of Shabbat, there is a mitzva to invoke its sanctity and essence, while when it ends there is a mitzva to identify the difference between the sacred Shabbat and the mundane weekdays. Therefore, according to many poskim, havdala, recited at the end of Shabbat, is a Torah obligation. Like kiddush, this Torah obligation can be fulfilled with words alone, while the Sages ordained that it be said over a cup of wine (Rambam; MB 296:1; see below 8:1).

The Sages mandated that kiddush be recited on Shabbat day as well, to honor the day and differentiate it from weekdays. By beginning the meal with kiddush, we make it clear that this is a special and important meal; thus we are reminded of the sanctity of Shabbat. However, since this is not the primary fulfillment of Zakhor, the Sages did not formulate a special berakha in honor of Shabbat. Rather the berakha on wine (Ha-gafen) is recited over a cup of wine. The custom is to say a few Shabbat-related verses beforehand. This kiddush is referred to as “Kidusha Raba” (“The Great Kiddush”), which is a type of euphemism, as in fact it is the Friday night kiddush that is the important one (MB 289:3).

Even though the meal eaten on Shabbat day is considered more important than the nighttime meal (as explained below, 7:4), the mitzva of Zakhor is nevertheless fulfilled though the kiddush at night, because the mitzva is to mark Shabbat as it begins. Thus, after one finishes praying, he should hasten to make kiddush (SA 271:1, 3). One who was unable to make kiddush Friday night has not lost out on the mitzva. Rather, he should make kiddush in the morning before eating his first meal. He should recite the Friday night kiddush but leave out the verses of Va-yekhulu, since they are specifically connected to the evening (SA and Rema 271:8). If he did not make kiddush before his meal in the morning, there is still a mitzva to make kiddush as long as the sun has not set. He should make sure to eat afterward (as will be explained below, section 10).

Since according to Torah law one can verbally fulfill the obligation of Zakhor, some maintain that with the recitation of the middle berakha of the Amida at Ma’ariv (which invokes Shabbat), one has already fulfilled this obligation (MA). However, others question this, for two reasons. First, people do not generally intend to fulfill the mitzva of Zakhor with this prayer, and we maintain that mitzvot require intent (SA 60:4). Second, it is possible that one must mention in kiddush that Shabbat is a commemoration of the Egyptian Exodus. In the Amida, the Exodus is not juxtaposed with the sanctity of Shabbat. Therefore, in practice, we fulfill the Torah commandment in accordance with the Sages’ directives by making kiddush over wine (MB 271:2; BHL ad loc.). Furthermore, we have already seen that some authorities maintain that fulfilling the Torah obligation requires wine (see n. 1).

03. Kiddush over Wine

The Sages instituted the recitation of kiddush over wine because it is the most dignified beverage, as it provides both nourishment and good cheer. They similarly instituted that a berakha be recited over a cup of wine at other joyful mitzvot, such as betrothal, weddings (when seven blessings – Sheva Berakhot – are recited), and brit mila. The special status of wine is also expressed in the fact that a special berakha was instituted for it. Before drinking most beverages, we recite the general berakha of She-hakol, and after finishing the drink we recite the short berakha aĥarona, Borei Nefashot. When it comes to wine, however, we recite Ha-gafen before drinking and Al Ha-gefen afterward. Another law gives expression to the special status of wine. Although its berakha is different from that of other drinks, reciting Ha-gafen over wine exempts the person drinking from making berakhot over any other drinks.

Ideally, in order to glorify the mitzva, kiddush should be made over a fine wine, one the person making kiddush really enjoys. If wine is unavailable, one should make kiddush over bread on Friday night and over an alcoholic beverage such as beer or vodka on Shabbat day. If no such drink is available, he may make kiddush over bread during the day as well.^[2]

The recitation of kiddush over wine has profound significance. Generally, holiness comes to expression in the spiritual world in a somber and serious fashion, while in the material world, the evil inclinations toward lust, arrogance, and mockery are more evident. Therefore, gentile spiritual leaders often distance themselves from joy and jubilation, as they are likely to entice one toward despicable physical desires. This is not the case for Jews. We sanctify Shabbat with wine to express the holiness of Shabbat, which reveals itself in both the spiritual and material worlds. Joy and jubilation, when properly directed, can be our true partners in revealing holiness in the world. This is the point of Shabbat – to reveal holiness through Torah study as well as festive meals, through prayer as well as kiddush over wine. This accords with the statement of the Sages: “One who recites kiddush over wine on Friday night is granted long life in this world and in the World to Come” (Pirkei De-Rabbi Eliezer 19).

04. Acceptable Kiddush Wines

The laws of acceptable kiddush wines are derived from the laws governing which wines could be used on the altar in Temple times. Any wine that was deemed unacceptable because of its repulsiveness is also pasul (ritually unfit) for kiddush. For example, wine that was left exposed for several hours in a cup or an open bottle may not be used for kiddush. Similarly, wine that smells bad is unacceptable (SA 272:1; MB ad loc. 3).

However, wines acceptable only be-di’avad for use on the altar are acceptable for kiddush even le-khatĥila. For example, a very sweet wine, made from overripe grapes overexposed to sunlight, is acceptable on the altar be-di’avad but acceptable for kiddush even le-khatĥila. Similarly, using grape juice on the altar was deemed acceptable be-di’avad but may be used for kiddush le-khatĥila. Nevertheless, it is most preferable to make kiddush on good alcoholic wine that makes one glad (SA 272:2; MB ad loc. 5).

Some wines have been rendered unfit for the altar because they have been mixed with other liquids, but are still acceptable for kiddush. For example, wine mixed with water is pasul for the altar, but not for kiddush. On the contrary, it is good to dilute the wine a bit to make it tastier, and to dull its strength. Nowadays, however, wines do not need to be watered down, because they are not strong to begin with (SA and Rema 272:5).

Some maintain that if wine is so watered down that there is more water than wine, it is not considered wine, the berakha recited over it is not Ha-gafen, and it is unacceptable for kiddush. Others are more lenient and permit its use as long as it still tastes like wine. Local Israeli rabbinates make sure to only certify wines in which wine content is the majority, thus satisfying all opinions.^[3]

Wine that was cooked (“mevushal”) or had sugar or honey added to it was rendered unacceptable for Temple libations because it had been altered from its original form. Some maintain that just as these wines were unacceptable for libations, so too they are unacceptable for kiddush (Rambam). But the majority of poskim maintain that these wines are acceptable for kiddush because cooking them or adding sugar to them is meant to improve them, and this is the accepted practice. Even if one has unadulterated wine but prefers the taste of the cooked or sweetened wine, it is preferable to make kiddush over the wine he prefers (SA and Rema 272:8). Many choice sweet wines have no sugar added, but rather are sweet because of the type of grape used to make them. Everyone agrees that these wines are acceptable for kiddush use.^[4]

Some maintain that only red wine is acceptable for kiddush use, while white wine is unfit (Ramban). However, most poskim maintain that white wine may be used, and this is the position of Shulĥan Arukh (272:4). If one has two wines available to him – an inferior red and a superior white – and he wishes to conform to all the positions, he should mix the white wine with a little of the red, which will leave him with tasty red wine (it is preferable to pour the white wine into the red, as explained below, 12:10).

05. The Required Amount of Wine

In order to fulfill the mitzva of kiddush there must be enough wine in the cup to be considered significant, so that the berakha is recited over something. This amount is the volume of an egg and a half (one fourth [revi’it] of a log, commonly referred to simply as a revi’it), which is the minimum amount that must be present in any cup being used to fulfill a mitzva (kos shel berakha). If less than this amount is used, the mitzva has not been fulfilled (Shabbat 76b; Pesaĥim 107a, 108b; MA 271:32).

For many years it was assumed that the egg and a half that Rambam mentions was the equivalent of 86 ml, based on the opinion of R. Ĥayim Naeh. However, more precise calculations show that the amount is really 75 ml. Some are stringent and maintain that the eggs nowadays are only half the size that they once were, so that the amount of wine in the cup must be doubled to 150 ml. (Ĥazon Ish). In practice, the bottom line is that one may make kiddush over 75 ml of wine, but many Ashkenazim are stringent le-khatĥila to use 150 ml.^[5]

After making kiddush, one must drink a “melo lugmav” – the amount of wine that could fill the drinker’s cheek if he puffed it out – considered the smallest amount that has a relaxing effect on the drinker. This corresponds to the majority of a revi’it, or at least 38 ml, but one with a bigger mouth must drink more. For most people this amount will be between 50 and 55 ml, but nobody, even a giant, must drink more than a revi’it.

If the person making kiddush is unable to drink a melo lugmav, one of the listeners can do so instead. Be-di’avad, if a cheek full is drunk collectively, all have fulfilled their obligation, even though no individual drank a cheek full (Pesaĥim 107a; SA 271:14; MB ad loc. 73).^[6]

06. The Laws of Kos Shel Berakha

The Sages ordained that a number of berakhot be recited over a kos (goblet) of wine, such as the berakha over betrothal, marriage, Birkat Ha-mazon (Grace after Meals), kiddush, and havdala. Since these berakhot are made over a kos to glorify God, it is proper that the kos be pretty and elegant. The Sages established the following rules about it.

The kos must be whole, without defects or breaks on the rim or the base. If the kos is not whole, but no other kos is available, one may still use it be-di’avad. However, if it is cracked to the point that the wine leaks out, leaving less than a revi’it, it may not be used.

If there are several available cups, one should pick out the nicest one to use for the berakha. Many use a silver goblet for kiddush. If the only kos available is a plastic disposable one, it may be used be-di’avad.^[7]

The kos must be totally clean. If it was drunk from or otherwise got dirty, it must be washed inside and out (SA 183:1). Be-di’avad, if it is difficult to wash the kos, one may wipe it out and clean it using a napkin (MB ad loc. 1).

Although a kos that holds a revi’it is sufficient, if a larger cup is used, there is a mitzva to fill it up all the way since it is more dignified for the berakha to be made over a full cup. Some are accustomed to fill the kos to overflowing, to the point that whoever is making kiddush will probably spill wine on his hand. It would seem preferable to fill the kos close to the top but not to overflowing, so that the wine does not spill. This is what the Sages meant when they spoke of a full kos (Taz 183:4; SAH 4; MB 183:9; proof of this is the explanation given of Beit Hillel’s opinion in Berakhot 52b).

If one drank from the wine while it was in the kos or directly from the wine bottle, the wine remaining in the kos or bottle is called pagum (defective) and considered unfit for sacramental purposes. When necessary, one can fix pagum wine by adding non-defective wine to it. Once the additional wine is added, all the wine is considered new. If the wine is strong, one can fix it by adding water instead. Be-di’avad, if there is no way to fix the wine, one may make kiddush on pagum wine (SA 182:3-7).^[8]

The Sages stated that one should first take the kos in both hands in order to show how dear it is. Then, when making kiddush, one should hold the kos in the right hand, which is the more important one. He should hold the kos with all his fingers so that they cradle the cup. He should lift the kos a tefaĥ above the table, so that it is visible to all. He should look at the kos so that he is not distracted. If he needs to, he should look in a prayer book, but it is best to place it adjacent to the kos so that he sees both. After he drinks from the wine he should give some to his wife so that the blessing spreads to both of them (SA 183:4).^[9]

07. Distributing Wine to All Present

In order to fulfill the mitzva of kiddush, a melo lugmav of wine must be drunk by the person making kiddush or a member of his audience (as explained in section 5 of this chapter). The rest of the listeners thus fulfill their obligation in kiddush even if they do not partake of the wine. Ideally, each listener should drink from the kiddush wine (SA 271:14).

If the person who made kiddush drank directly from the kos, he should not then pour from this kos into cups for the listeners, since the wine is now pagum (as we learned in section 6). However, as long as family members are drinking directly from the kiddush cup they are not considered drinking pagum wine, because their drinking is considered an extension of the original drinking. It is only when the wine is poured into a different cup that it is considered pagum (SHT 271:89; MB 182:24).

Thus, one who wishes to pour the kiddush wine into the cups of his audience should first add a little wine from the bottle to the kos. This fixes the cup’s wine, and it may then be poured for the other people present (SA 182:6; MB 271:82; SHT 271:89). Another solution is for the person making kiddush to pour a melo lugmav from the kiddush cup into his own cup, and drink the wine from there. This way the wine in the kiddush cup is not pagum, and he may pour from it into the cups of the listeners. It is often necessary to add wine to the kiddush cup so that everyone who listened to kiddush can have a taste.

There is another method: Before making kiddush, a little wine can be poured into the cups of all present. After hearing kiddush they can drink this wine. In this case, the person making kiddush need not pour wine for them from his kos at all, since the wine before them at the time of kiddush is considered kiddush wine. There are two advantages to this: 1) The audience’s time lag between making the berakha and drinking the wine is shortened. 2) There is no issue of pagum at all. This is particularly suitable for a large audience and for guests who may feel uncomfortable drinking wine poured from the cup that the person making kiddush drank from (SA 271:16-17; MB 83). If the listeners do not have a revi’it of wine in their cups, they should not drink until after the person making kiddush drinks (SSK ch. 48 n. 74).

Even if the listeners do not plan to drink from the wine, they should still remain silent until the one making kiddush has drunk a melo lugmav. Be-di’avad, if they spoke before he drank, they have still fulfilled their obligation (SSK 48:6). If they wish to drink the wine, they should remain silent until after drinking.^[10]

08. Kiddush Customs and Covering the Challah

There is a widespread custom to stand during the Friday night kiddush because it attests to the creation of the world, and witnesses must stand when giving testimony. The Arizal, basing himself on mystical considerations, also recommends standing; this is the custom of Sephardim and Ashkenazic Ĥasidim (SA 271:10; Kaf Ha-ĥayim 62). However, most Ashkenazic Jews sit during kiddush since it is supposed to be recited where one will be eating (see section 10 below), and meals are eaten sitting down. Additionally, sitting down together makes the audience and the person making kiddush into a clearly-defined group. There are some Ashkenazim who try to get the best of both worlds by standing during the recitation of Va-yekhulu and sitting down for the rest of kiddush (MB 271:46; SSK 47:28).

All agree that it is preferable to sit for kiddush during the day, and this is the common practice. Nevertheless, some are accustomed to stand, and this is not prohibited.

Even though a woman may make kiddush like a man, it is customary for the man to make kiddush for his family. When multiple families are eating together it is preferable that one person make kiddush for everyone, based on the principle that “In a multitude of people, the King is glorified” (SA 167:11).

It is customary to cover the challah during kiddush. Since bread is considered the more important food, normally if we have both wine and bread in front of us and we plan to eat from both, we recite the berakha on the bread first. But when making kiddush, the berakha on the wine must be made first. In order to avoid giving “incorrect” precedence to the wine, we cover the challah. Similarly, if there are mezonot (grain-based foods over which the berakha of Mezonot is recited), they should be covered during kiddush, as mezonot also normally take precedence over wine. When one is organizing a kiddush for the congregation after services, anyone intending to drink from the kiddush wine must cover any pastries in front of him. One who does not intend to drink from the wine after kiddush need not do so (See SSK ch. 47 n. 125). Based on this explanation, it is not necessary to have the challah on the table when one is making kiddush. If they are on the table, however, they must be covered.

Others provide an additional reason for covering the challah. The two Shabbat challahs allude to the manna that fell during desert times. The manna was covered above and below by layers of dew. To parallel this, the challah is placed above the tablecloth and covered. Accordingly, some people are careful to put the covered challah on the table before kiddush, as a reminder of the manna. Some leave the challah covered until after the recitation of “ha-motzi.” Some even cover the challah at se’uda shlishit for this reason (MB 271:41; AHS 271:22).

09. The Prohibition of Eating and Drinking before Kiddush

Once Shabbat has begun, it is a mitzva to fulfill the Torah mandate of Zakhor as soon as possible by making kiddush. The Sages ordained that nothing should be eaten before kiddush. One may not even drink water before kiddush, but one may rinse his mouth out or swallow medicine (SA 271:4; MB 271:13; SSK 52:3).^[11]

This prohibition goes into effect from the moment Shabbat begins. Therefore, a woman who lights candles and accepts Shabbat may not drink until she hears kiddush. Similarly, a man who has accepted tosefet Shabbat may not eat or drink until he hears kiddush. Even one who has not fulfilled the mitzva of tosefet Shabbat may not eat after shki’a, because Shabbat begins then whether or not one consciously accepts it (MB 271:11; see SSK 43:46).

On Shabbat day as well, after Shaĥarit it is forbidden to eat or drink until one hears kiddush.

Some wish to eat and drink before Shaĥarit, but, as is generally known, this is forbidden. The Sages tell us: “If one eats and drinks, and only afterward prays, Scripture says of him: ‘You have cast Me behind your back [Hebrew “gavekha”]’ (1 Melakhim 14:9). Do not read gavekha (your back), but rather ge’ekha (your pride). God says: ‘After this one has exalted himself, he comes and accepts the kingdom of heaven?!’” (Berakhot 10b). However one may drink water before praying because there is no pride in drinking water. The poskim also teach that if one needs to he may also drink coffee or tea; and if he must, he may even sweeten it with a bit of sugar (SA 89:3-4).

If one is sick and must eat before praying, or is so hungry that he knows he will not be able to focus on his prayers if he does not eat something before praying, he may eat a little (see Peninei Halakha: Prayer 12:6-7). Although some maintain that he should make kiddush before eating, in practice we do not make kiddush before prayer, because the custom follows the opinion that it is only after Shaĥarit that the obligation of kiddush comes into effect.^[12]

A woman who generally prays Shaĥarit may drink before praying, and, if need be, even eat (as may a man), for as long as she has not prayed, she is not yet obligated in kiddush. But a woman who generally only prays Birkhot Ha-shaĥar is obligated in kiddush immediately upon awakening. If she wishes to eat or drink, she should first say Birkhot Ha-shaĥar and then make kiddush and eat and drink. In a case of necessity, such as if she does not know how to make kiddush and is very thirsty, she may drink, and – if really necessary – even eat (Peninei Halakha: Women’s Prayer 22:10).^[13]

If minors are old enough to be taught, ideally they should be trained not to eat before kiddush, but if they are hungry or thirsty one may feed them before kiddush (SSK 52:18; Yalkut Yosef 271:17).

10. Reciting Kiddush at the Place of the Meal

The Sages ordained that kiddush be made at the place of the meal (“be-makom se’uda”), for Scripture states: “Call Shabbat ‘delight’” (Yeshayahu 58:13), teaching us that specifically where one delights in Shabbat with bread or pastries he must proclaim Shabbat, i.e., make kiddush. This allows us to reveal the special nature of Shabbat, whose meals are a direct continuation of the mitzva of Zakhor. The proclamation of holiness and the delight with meals complement each other. If one did not eat where he made kiddush, he did not fulfill the mitzva, and he must make kiddush again where he eats. This law applies equally to kiddush by day and by night.

There were some Torah giants who were personally stringent, and insisted on eating their actual Shabbat meal where they made kiddush. This was the custom of the Vilna Gaon. However, the law requires only that one eat a kezayit of bread or mezonot where one makes kiddush. This is sufficient to fulfill the obligation of kiddush. Afterward, one may eat the meal elsewhere. According to the Ge’onim, if there is no mezonot food where one is making kiddush, he may drink a revi’it of wine instead, since wine is also nutritious and filling. If necessary, one may rely upon them. However, at night when the obligation of kiddush is of Torah origin, the person making kiddush should be careful to drink a revi’it in addition to the melo lugmav that he must drink to fulfill the obligation of kiddush. The rest of the listeners need only drink a revi’it (SA 273:5; MB 273:25, 27; SHT 29).

However, if one heard kiddush at the synagogue but only drank a bit of juice and had less than a kezayit of mezonot, he has not fulfilled his obligation of kiddush. Not only that, but he has transgressed the rabbinic prohibition against eating and drinking before kiddush; for since he did not fulfill his obligation, it turns out that he ate and drank before kiddush.

The Rishonim discuss three different parameters for how far away one may go and still be considered eating “at the place of the meal”:

1) Anywhere within the same room is acceptable, even if one place is not visible to another in the same room (Rambam; Tosafot; Rosh).

2) As long as the person making kiddush can see the place where the meal will be eaten, even if that place is in a different home or yard, it is acceptable (R. Sar Shalom).

3) If, while making kiddush, the person had in mind to move to another room in the same building, it is acceptable (R. Nissim Gaon).

Ideally, one should make kiddush at the actual place of the meal. When this is difficult, one may make kiddush anywhere that two of the three criteria mentioned above are met. For example, if one needs to eat in a different room, it is preferable that he have that in mind during kiddush, and that he make kiddush from a vantage point where he can see the place where he is planning to eat. If there is really no choice, one can rely on any one of the three criteria being met (SA 273:1; MB and SHT ad loc.).

Ideally, one should not wait between making kiddush and eating. Similarly, one should not go somewhere after kiddush before eating, even if he intends to return and eat where he made kiddush. Be-di’avad, if he waited for a short time or left briefly, his kiddush still counts. However, if he waited more than 72 minutes and intended to separate kiddush and the meal, then he has “lost” his kiddush and he must make it again (Rema 273:3; MB ad loc. 12; BHL s.v. “le-altar”; Kaf Ha-ĥayim ad loc. 29; Tzitz Eliezer 11:26; Yalkut Yosef 273:15; SSK 54, nn. 46-47).

01. The Mitzva of Se’udot Shabbat (Festive Shabbat Meals)

The Sages state: “One who eats three festive meals on Shabbat is spared from three misfortunes: the birth-pangs of the Messiah, condemnation to hell, and Armageddon” (Shabbat 118a). The Sages also state: “Whoever delights in Shabbat is spared from imperial subjugation” (ibid. 118b). Informing these statements is the idea that without Shabbat we would become totally subjugated to the material burden of this world. We would work nonstop in order to sustain our bodies and provide them with pleasure; we would forget our divine souls and find it difficult to elevate ourselves toward divine ideals. Our spiritual inclinations would be suppressed and silenced, and we would consequently sink into all the world’s faults and perversions, which are the cause of all calamity. But when one is privileged to connect to Shabbat with all his being, spiritual and material, through Torah study and prayer as well as rest and pleasure, he transcends the world’s flaws and reaches the eternally good world. Thus he is automatically saved from the calamities of this world.

This coarse material world is full of barriers that prevent the divine light from being revealed, and the soul from actualizing itself. But one who enjoys Shabbat through Torah, prayer, and good food connects his body with its spiritual roots. The physical becomes a vehicle of expression for the soul and for the sanctity of Shabbat. Then the limitations and impediments of this material world cease to exist, and the heart is made whole. This fulfills the words of the Sages: “Whoever enjoys Shabbat is given everything his heart desires” (Shabbat 118b).

By cleaning our houses and eating festive meals in honor of Shabbat, we link the material world to its spiritual roots, and draw down blessing upon it. This is the meaning of the statement of the Sages: “One who honors Shabbat merits wealth” (Shabbat 119a). They similarly state: “Whoever makes Shabbat enjoyable receives boundless territory” (ibid. 118a), as the biblical text states:

If you refrain from trampling the Shabbat, from pursuing your affairs on My holy day; if you call Shabbat “delight,” the Lord’s holy [day] “honored”…. Then you will seek the Lord’s delight. I will set you astride the heights of the earth, and let you enjoy the heritage of your father Yaakov – for the mouth of the Lord has spoken. (Yeshayahu 58:13-14)

Yaakov’s heritage is boundless.

At first glance it would seem very easy to enjoy Shabbat with good food. Why then did the Sages talk at such length about the great reward for doing this? Doesn’t everyone like to eat and enjoy? What must be kept in mind is that the mitzva is to take pleasure in Shabbat – not in the palate or the gut. In other words, we must enjoy the meals while recognizing that they serve to express the sanctity of Shabbat. The meals should leave one with a greater desire to learn more Torah and do more mitzvot. If one is privileged to enjoy Shabbat, and joins the pleasure of the body with the exaltation of the soul, he merits holiness and blessing both in this world and in the World to Come.

Though Shabbat and Yom Tov are similar, there is also a difference between them. The mitzva of Shabbat is oneg (pleasure, delight) while the mitzva of Yom Tov is simĥa (joy). The difference is that simĥa is conspicuous and visible to others. Thus it is a mitzva on Yom Tov to eat meat and to drink more wine than usual. However, oneg is more internal, subtle, and refined. Thus the mitzva of eating on Shabbat is also more refined. One who does not really enjoy meat and wine can enjoy other foods instead. Perhaps this is why fish is a typical Shabbat food; its taste is refined and subtle.^[1]

02. The Parameters of the Mitzva

There are two mitzvot pertaining to the Shabbat meal. One is oneg, the mitzva to delight in Shabbat, as it is written: “Call Shabbat ‘delight’ (oneg)” (Yeshayahu 58:13). Oneg is fulfilled primarily through the meals, but snacks and a Shabbat nap are parts of it as well. The second mitzva is to partake of three meals. The Sages saw this hinted at in various verses (Shabbat 117b).^[2]

The first meal is held on Friday night, the second on Shabbat morning before midday, and the third on Shabbat afternoon from half a seasonal hour after midday until shki’a. If one eats the third meal prior to this, he has not fulfilled his obligation (SA 291:2). One who did not eat dinner on Friday night should eat three meals on Shabbat day. If one was unable to eat the second meal before midday, he should eat two meals afterward, for some maintain that the timing of the meals is not critical, and be-di’avad one may rely upon them (Behag; Rema 291:1).

Bread is the staple of the meal because it is the most important food. It is a mitzva to prepare other good foods that people delight in. In the time of the Sages, people enjoyed a dish made of spinach, large fish, and heads of garlic, so it was a mitzva to prepare these for Shabbat (Shabbat 118b; MB 242:1). Since most people enjoy meat, wine, and delicacies (meaning tasty fruits), poskim write that we should have plenty of them (SA 250:2). One who does not enjoy meat and wine should prepare foods he does enjoy for Shabbat.

The Aĥaronim write, based on Kabbala, that there is a mitzva to eat fish at each of the three meals. Several reasons are given for this: fish symbolize blessing, they hint at deep matters since they are creatures of the deep, and ayin ha-ra (the evil eye) has no power over them. However, one who does not enjoy fish is not required to eat it (MA 242:1).

Even though eating sparingly is generally a positive character trait, on Shabbat it is a mitzva to eat heartily. It is not considered gluttonous since it is for a mitzva (Shabbat 117b; SA 274:2; MB 6). However, one should not overeat, because overeating leads to exhaustion and depression. As for those who stuff themselves, fill up, become tired, fall asleep, and do not study Torah, they do not get any credit for the mitzva. They are not making Shabbat enjoyable, they are only pleasing their gullets (Shlah, Masekhet Shabbat, Ner Mitzva §37; see above 5:3).

One may not fast on Shabbat, even for just an hour. Even one who does not intend to fast but in fact has not eaten anything by midday on Shabbat morning has transgressed this prohibition (SA and Rema 288:1). He also is obviously not eating the second meal at its ideal time.

One who is ill and has no appetite need not eat very much, since the eating is meant to be pleasurable. One who does not enjoy eating need not eat much but should try to eat a little more than a keveitza (egg’s bulk) of bread. If even this is difficult for him, he should eat at least a kezayit. If even this amount pains him, he should not eat at all (SA 288:2; 291:1).^[3]

03. Leĥem Mishneh (Two Loaves) and Cutting the Bread

There is a mitzva to use two loaves of bread on Shabbat, to commemorate the double portion of manna that fell on Fridays when the Jews were in the desert and that was referred to as leĥem mishneh (Shabbat 117b). Actually, there are many double aspects to Shabbat. Its mitzvot are two-fold – Zakhor and Shamor; its sacrifices are double – two perfect lambs; its punishment is double, and so is its reward. The bread that we use is doubled to express that the day is doubly great (based on Yalkut Shimoni, Beshalaĥ §261).

The person breaking bread should hold both of the challahs in his hands while reciting the berakha, but it is sufficient if he cuts only one. By holding both challahs during the berakha, he has already fulfilled the mitzva of leĥem mishneh (Rambam, Rashi, SA 274:1). However, others maintain that one should cut both challahs (Shlah, Vilna Gaon). Those who wish to follow this custom should make sure to use small challahs so that they can finish them during the meal. The widespread custom is to cut only one loaf.

There are many customs as to how to arrange the challahs for the berakha. Some put one loaf on top of the other and cut the bottom one (SA 274:1). Others cut the top challah (Arizal). Others cut the bottom challah at night and the top challah during the day (Rema ad loc.) Those who cut the bottom challah should draw it closer to themselves when reciting the berakha (MB 274:5). Some follow Arizal’s custom of having twelve small loaves on the table at every meal (Kaf Ha-ĥayim 263:2).

Ideally, the challahs should be completely whole. Accordingly, one should not remove the sticker often found on the loaves of bread (in Israel) until after the berakha, since doing so may peel away a bit of the crust, thus rendering the challah not quite whole. If there are no whole loaves available, one should use the ones that are closest to whole. If necessary, he may use frozen bread for leĥem mishneh (SSK 55:12). If there are no complete uncut challahs but there are two whole loaves of pre-sliced bread, be-di’avad one can make “ha-motzi” on them. This is because some maintain that since they are whole loaves, and their package serves to preserve them as one unit, they are considered whole (Meshiv Davar §21). If there are no loaves available but only slices, one should make the berakha over two slices (SSK 55:17).

At se’uda shlishit as well, one is obligated to use two loaves in order to give expression to the double nature of Shabbat (SA 291:4). If he does not have two loaves, he should make “ha-motzi” over one whole loaf. For when the manna fell, our ancestors in the desert were left with only one loaf for se’uda shlishit (Rema ad loc.).

04. The Importance of the Shabbat Day Meal

The daytime meal is more important than the Friday night meal, so the best foods should be saved for this second meal. Regarding kiddush, however, Friday night is more important, because we are meant to sanctify the day as close as possible to its onset. It is with regard to honoring Shabbat that the daytime takes precedence over the nighttime (Pesaĥim 105b; SA 271:3).

Some maintain that one who honors the Friday night meal more than the daytime meal should fear punishment, because he has disrespected the day’s meal (Rashi, Gittin 38b). Therefore, some make a point of not eating fish on Friday night, to avoid a situation in which the meal by night might seem more important than the meal by day (Yam Shel Shlomo, ad loc.).

Others maintain that if it turns out that the Friday night meal is better because hot, fresh food can be served then, it does not reflect any disrespect. Therefore, one may prepare foods for Friday night that need to be served hot – such as fish, soup, or other foods that would go bad if they sat overnight – even if this means that the Friday night meal will be better than the daytime meal. But when dealing with foods that can be served either by night or by day, such as wine and fruits, one should make sure to give precedence to the day’s meal. For many people this is not a problem, because even though on Friday night they have hot, fresh food, they still prefer the foods that are generally served by day, such as cholent and kugel, whose unique flavor results from leaving them on the warming tray for a long time (AHS 271:9).

In practice, one who prefers the foods served during the day is certainly honoring the daytime meal. But one who does not prefer them must make a point of serving foods he especially loves by day, to show that it is the more important meal. He need not cut back on the Friday night meal in order to do so.

Some say that one should ideally eat a meal with bread immediately after making kiddush, and not have foods that are mezonot or other foods then, because the primary mitzva of enjoying Shabbat is fulfilled through eating a meal. If one eats various foods beforehand, he might have no appetite for the Shabbat meal. Nevertheless, there is no prohibition involved, because enjoying Shabbat following kiddush is also considered honoring the day. What is important is to not spoil one’s appetite for the second Shabbat meal, which will be celebrated with bread (Darkhei Moshe 249:4; BHL ad loc. 2 s.v. “mutar;” AHS ad loc. 12-13).

Some eat a light, dairy meal for the second Shabbat meal so that they will be alert, energetic, and able to learn Torah all day. They then have the main meat meal near evening at se’uda shlishit (See MT 30:10). It would seem that they too fulfill the mitzva, because the key is for the important meal to be eaten on Shabbat day.

05. Se’uda Shlishit

If one does not have bread for se’uda shlishit or finds it difficult to eat bread, be-di’avad he may fulfill his obligation by eating mezonot. Although one may not use mezonot for the first and second meals (SA 274:4), when it comes to se’uda shlishit, some maintain that the primary purpose of the meal is to increase one’s delight, not to reach satiety, so one is not obligated to eat bread specifically. Therefore, be-di’avad one fulfills the obligation with mezonot. If he does not have mezonot either, or cannot eat them, he should eat meat or fish. If one has no meat or fish, he should eat fruit, preferably cooked, since cooked fruit is considered more akin to a proper meal (SA 291:5).

Ideally one should plan his eating so that he will have an appetite for se’uda shlishit. If it turns out that he is eating se’uda shlishit not long after lunch, he should eat less at lunch so that he will have an appetite for se’uda shlishit. If one was not careful about this and as a result is full when it is time for se’uda shlishit, he may eat a bit more than a keveitza of bread and thereby fulfill his obligation. Be-di’avad, he may even eat only a kezayit of bread. If a kezayit of bread or other foods is still too much and would cause him grief, he has lost this mitzva opportunity (SA 291:1; MB ad loc. 2).

According to Rambam, one must make a berakha over wine during se’uda shlishit. Some understand this to mean that just as one makes kiddush before lunch, similarly he must make kiddush before se’uda shlishit (Tur). However, in practice the mitzva of kiddush is once by night and once by day, and there is no mitzva to make kiddush over wine at se’uda shlishit (SA 291:4). Others say that Rambam is merely ruling that there is a mitzva to drink wine at se’uda shlishit in order to make Shabbat more delightful. Indeed, several Aĥaronim write that it is best to beautify the mitzva by having wine at se’uda shlishit.

Se’uda shlishit must begin before shki’a. As long as one recited “ha-motzi” before shki’a and began the meal, he may continue to eat even well after tzeit. However, if one was not eating bread but mezonot, fruits, or vegetables, or if he was drinking, then once shki’a arrives he must stop, because these foods do not render this a proper meal; since the time for havdala has already arrived, one may not eat or drink (SA 299:1; MB ad loc. 2; AHS ad loc. 3-5; below 8:8).

One who did not manage to begin se’uda shlishit before shki’a may start eating up to 13.5 minutes after shki’a (and may continue eating well beyond nightfall). But later than that, he should not eat se’uda shlishit.^[4]

If a bride, a groom, and a minyan, were present at se’uda shlishit, Sheva Berakhot are recited at the conclusion of the meal. The person who leads the zimun, the bride, and the groom all drink from the wine after Birkat Ha-mazon even if it is past tzeit and they have not yet made havdala, because drinking this wine is a continuation of their meal (See below 8:8 where we record that some are accustomed to drink wine from the kos shel berakha even without a bride and groom present).

06. Birkat Ha-mazon

The Sages instituted a special passage to be inserted into Birkat Ha-mazon on Shabbat: “Retzei Ve-haĥalitzenu” (“Favor and strengthen us”). In it we ask that our Shabbat rest and our fulfillment of Shabbat mitzvot find favor with God, and that God allow us to keep Shabbat with no sorrow or anguish. Since this is a petition, the Sages ordained that it be recited during the third berakha, which is also petitionary. In order to return us to the topic of this berakha, the added prayer ends with a request about Jerusalem and the redemption. We then return to the paragraph of “U-venei Yerushalayim.”

One who forgot to recite Retzei but remembered before beginning the next berakha (Ha-tov Ve-hametiv) must add the following prayer: “Blessed are You, Lord our God, King of the universe, Who lovingly gave Shabbatot for rest to His people Israel to serve as a sign and a covenant. Blessed are You, Lord, Who sanctifies Shabbat.” One then continues with Ha-tov Ve-hametiv. If he realized that he forgot Retzei after he had already begun Ha-tov Ve-hametiv, he must repeat Birkat Ha-mazon from the beginning. For the Sages required that Shabbat be mentioned in Birkat Ha-mazon. Thus if he did not mention Shabbat, he did not fulfill his obligation (SA 188:6).^[5]

All of this pertains to the first two Shabbat meals, when all agree that one is required to eat bread and therefore required to recite Birkat Ha-mazon. However, if one forgot to mention Shabbat in Birkat Ha-mazon at se’uda shlishit he does not repeat it, since be-di’avad that meal can consist of mezonot, so he is not obligated to recite Birkat Ha-mazon. Therefore, if he forgot Retzei, he does not repeat Birkat Ha-mazon. This is also the case regarding the insertion of Ya’aleh Ve-yavo on Rosh Ĥodesh or Ĥol Ha-mo’ed: Since one is not obligated to eat bread then, he does not repeat Birkat Ha-mazon (SA 188:8).^[6]

If one began to eat se’uda shlishit before shki’a and finished after tzeit, he says Retzei, since we follow the starting time of the meal. If Rosh Ĥodesh falls out on Saturday night, there is a serious doubt as to what he should mention in Birkat Ha-mazon. In order to avoid this situation, it is best to avoid eating bread after tzeit. That way it is certain that he should recite Retzei only.^[7]

07. The Significance of Melaveh Malka

The Sages state that it is a mitzva to set the table on Saturday night for the melaveh malka (lit. “accompanying the queen”) meal, with which we honor Shabbat at its departure (Shabbat 119b). When one must say goodbye to a dear and beloved guest whom he does not want to leave, he escorts him a distance in order to spend just a bit more time with him. So too, we must escort Shabbat at its departure. Despite the fact that it is over, we continue to savor and delight in its holiness.

On Shabbat we are blessed with additional holiness in all areas of life, material and spiritual, as expressed through prayer and meals. Our goal is to extend the light of Shabbat to the weekdays. Arizal explains that by saying Vi-yhi No’am (Tehilim 90:17–91:16) in Ma’ariv on Saturday night, we extend the additional spiritual holiness of Shabbat to the weekdays, and ask that God’s grace rest upon all our endeavors. Through melaveh malka we extend the light of holiness to our eating all week.

We have a tradition that there is a bone in the human body called the luz. This bone did not benefit when Adam ate from the Tree of Knowledge; therefore, even though death was decreed upon mankind as a result of the sin, this bone does not rot. At the time of the resurrection of the dead, each individual’s revival will begin from the luz. This bone, we are told, is nourished only by melaveh malka (Kaf Ha-ĥayim 300:1-2; Vayikra Rabba 18:1).

Those who are especially devout prepare special food for melaveh malka. The Talmud (Shabbat 119b) recounts that R. Abahu’s household was accustomed to slaughter a calf on Saturday night to serve at the melaveh malka. R. Abahu would eat one of its kidneys. When R. Abahu’s son grew up, he asked why it was necessary to slaughter an entire calf each Saturday night. He suggested that it made more sense to leave over a kidney from the calf that had been slaughtered on Friday, and eat that on Saturday night. The family listened to him and saved  some of Friday’s meat for Saturday night. A lion came along and devoured the veal that was meant for Saturday night. Thus they gained nothing. The Gemara tells us this story to teach us that it is proper to make the extra effort and prepare special food for melaveh malka rather than just eat Shabbat leftovers.

08. The Laws Pertaining to Melaveh Malka

Since the melaveh malka is meant to extend the Shabbat experience to the weekdays, it is comparable to the other Shabbat meals. Thus it is appropriate to put a tablecloth on the table and set it nicely. It is also appropriate to remain in Shabbat clothes until melaveh malka is finished. Just as Shabbat meals are equally relevant to men and women, so is melaveh malka (SSK 63:1-3).

Ideally one should have bread for melaveh malka, as one does at all the Shabbat meals, and one should make a special dish in honor of the meal. One who is not very hungry should try to eat at least a kezayit of bread along with something else. If he does not wish to eat bread, he may eat either mezonot, a cooked or fried food, or, minimally fruit, similar to se’uda shlishit (section 5 above).

One who does not have enough food for three Shabbat meals as well as melaveh malka should give precedence to the Shabbat meals. He can fulfill the obligation of melaveh malka with a kezayit of bread (SHT 300:9).

Ideally one should eat melaveh malka fairly soon after Shabbat ends. One who is not hungry then should try to eat within four hours of nightfall, or minimally before midnight. If he was not able to eat before midnight, he may still eat at any point during the night (Yeĥaveh Da’at 4:25; SSK 63:5).

Some maintain that one who continued se’uda shlishit past the end of Shabbat is exempt from melaveh malka. However, the custom is that even in such a case, one still eats melaveh malka later on (Kaf Ha-ĥayim 300:11).

01. The Basic Principles of Havdala

It is a mitzva to conclude Shabbat with havdala, in which we give verbal expression to the difference between the sanctity of Shabbat and the ordinary weekdays. The laws pertaining to havdala are similar to those pertaining to kiddush. Just as one must mention the sanctity of Shabbat on Friday night both during prayer and over a cup of wine, so too, at the conclusion of Shabbat one must recite havdala both during prayer and over a cup of wine.

It is true that originally, when the Men of the Great Assembly formulated havdala, they designed it for prayer alone. This was because it was at the time of the building of the Second Temple, and the Jews were poor. Therefore, the Sages did not wish to burden them with an additional expense by requiring wine for havdala. However, later on when the Jews’ financial situation improved and they could afford it, the Sages ordained that havdala be recited over a cup of wine. There was a period of time when people made havdala only on a cup of wine, not during prayer. Eventually it was decided that havdala would be done both during prayer and over a cup of wine. Women, who do not generally pray Ma’ariv, fulfill their obligation by hearing havdala over a cup of wine. Similarly, if one forgot to add the havdala insertion in the Amida, he does not repeat the prayer. Rather, he fulfills the obligation by hearing havdala over a cup of wine (SA 294:1).

The havdala in prayer is recited during the fourth berakha of the Amida since this is the first berakha that relates to everyday matters. Additionally, the theme of this berakha is knowledge, without which one cannot distinguish between the sacred and the profane. Therefore, it is logical to integrate havdala into the berakha in which we request wisdom and knowledge (Berakhot 33a).

According to many poskim, the obligation of havdala is by Torah law. These poskim understand the mitzva of Zakhor to include both kiddush and havdala; that is, marking Shabbat’s onset by invoking its sanctity and its exit by distinguishing the sacred from the profane. The requirement to recite kiddush and havdala over a cup of wine is rabbinic (Rambam). Others maintain that the Torah commandment of Zakhor is limited to invoking the sanctity of Shabbat at its onset, but the Sages expanded the mitzva by ordaining the recitation of havdala at its end (Rosh).

Women are obligated in havdala like men. Even though it is a time-dependent positive mitzva, from which women are generally exempt, since it is linked to the mitzva of kiddush, women are obligated to recite havdala just as they are obligated in kiddush (as explained above in 6:1). Nevertheless, there is an opinion that since havdala is time-dependent, women are exempt from it (Orĥot Ĥayim). In deference to this, le-khatĥila women generally do not make havdala for themselves, but rather hear it from a man. However, if there is no man present, a woman must make havdala for herself, reciting all four berakhot of havdala. Even if there is a man present, if he has already fulfilled his havdala obligation, it is proper that the woman make havdala for herself (MB 296:36). Only if she does not know how to make the berakhot herself can a man who already fulfilled his obligation make havdala for her.^[1]

02. Havdala over Wine

The procedure for making havdala over wine is as follows. It is customary to begin with a series of verses from the Prophets and Writings to serve as good omens and start the week off on a positive note. This is followed by four berakhot – Ha-gafen over the wine, “besamim” over the fragrance (see below), “borei me’orei ha-esh” (“Creator of firelight”) over fire, and finally “ha-mavdil bein kodesh le-ĥol” (“Who distinguishes sacred from profane”).

Two of these berakhot, Ha-gafen and Ha-mavdil, are essential; one who has not recited them has not fulfilled the mitzva of making havdala over wine.^[2] The Sages ordained that two additional berakhot are recited: one on a pleasant aroma, and one over fire. The former helps to soothe the soul’s pain upon the departure of the neshama yeteira at the end of Shabbat. The latter was instituted to commemorate the end of the first Shabbat, when God gave Adam the insight to rub two stones together and make a fire. One who does not have a fragrance or candle may make havdala without them. If, later on that night, a fragrance becomes available, he should recite the berakha and smell it. If he sees a candle or fire, he should recite ha-esh. Ideally, of course, one should prepare a fragrance and a candle for havdala so that all four berakhot can be recited in the order instituted by the Sages (SA 297:1; 298:1).

The berakhot proceed from the most physical to the most sublime of the senses. First we recite the berakha over wine. Taste is an extremely physical sense, activated only when food actually touches the mouth. Next we advance to the sense of smell, which requires proximity but not physical contact. The next berakha is over light. The sense of sight is even more subtle, as one can perceive something even at a great distance. Finally, the berakha of Ha-mavdil pertains to the ability to discern, a function of intelligence. The apex of this ability is discernment between the sacred and the profane (Rashbatz quoted in Kaf Ha-ĥayim 296:3).

03. Customs Related to Havdala

Since the Sages ordained that havdala be recited over wine, the cup should be held during havdala. It is held in the right hand, as it is the more important one. This preference for the right hand is true for all berakhot: Whenever a berakha is made over something, the object should be held in the right hand. Accordingly, when making the berakha over fragrance, the person making havdala should hold the fragrance in his right hand. During that time, many rest the cup of wine on a plate. Later, when they reach the berakha of Ha-mavdil, they pick up the cup once again. Some beautify the mitzva by holding the cup even while making the berakhot on the fragrance and the candle. Since the right hand has to be free to pick up the fragrance and to look at the candle’s flame, they pick up the cup in their left hand. When they reach Ha-mavdil they return the cup to their right hand (SA 296:6; MB ad loc.).

Some have the custom to sit for havdala, since by sitting the listeners establish that they wish to fulfill their obligation with this recitation of havdala (SA 296:6). Others customarily stand, demonstrating respect for Shabbat as it departs (Rema). In that case, in order to make it clear that everyone intends to fulfill their obligation by listening to havdala, they must gather round the person making havdala. Be-di’avad, if one stood at a distance but listened intently to the havdala, he has fulfilled his obligation.

As is the case with any kos shel berakha (a cup of wine linked to the performance of a mitzva), one should ensure that the cup is clean both inside and out. Many make a point of using a fancy goblet for havdala. The cup must hold a revi’it (roughly 75 ml and 150 ml according to Ĥazon Ish; see 6:5 above). If the cup has a larger capacity, it is a mitzva to fill it with wine, since it is appropriate to honor the berakha with a full cup. Although in most cases of kos shel berakha (e.g., for kiddush or at a wedding) it is preferable not to fill the cup all the way to the point of spilling over, many have the custom to fill the havdala cup to the point that it overflows a bit, as this is a symbol of blessing (Rema 296:1, and see 6:6 above for the rest of the laws concerning a kos shel berakha).

Ideally, the person making havdala should drink the entire revi’it of wine in the cup so that he can recite a berakha aĥarona over the wine. Nevertheless, to fulfill the mitzva of havdala it is sufficient to drink a melo lugmav (see above, 6:5, and n. 6 ad loc. regarding a case where one did not drink a cheek full; also see Peninei Halakha: Berakhot 10:10).

The audience must remain silent until the person making havdala finishes drinking a melo lugmav; since it is a mitzva to make havdala over a cup of wine, havdala is completed only when the person making havdala drinks a melo lugmav. Be-di’avad, if a listener speaks before the person making havdala drank from the cup, he has still fulfilled his obligation (SSK 60:39 and 48:6; see above, ch. 6 n. 10).

04. Using Beverages Other Than Wine

Ideally one should make havdala over wine, which is the most dignified beverage, as it nourishes and gladdens, so when it is enjoyed in the service of a mitzva, it has the unique capability to reveal the inner goodness of the Jewish people. The Sages state that one who makes havdala over wine on Saturday night will be blessed with children (Shev. 18b).

However, if there is no wine available, one may use ĥamar medina (lit. “the wine of the country”), a dignified beverage that people in that locale drink as one would drink wine (SA 296:2). For example, in many places people commonly drink beer. In such places, since beer is important for them, they may make havdala over it, replacing Ha-gafen with She-hakol.

If one has wine but prefers ĥamar medina, some say that he may not make havdala on ĥamar medina (Rabbeinu Ĥananel; Rashbam), while others maintain one may nevertheless use ĥamar medina (Rambam; Smag). In practice, it is proper for even one who prefers beer to recite havdala over wine, as long as he also likes wine. However, if he wants to, he may make havdala on ĥamar medina.

Vodka and arak are also considered ĥamar medina, but because they are so strong it is difficult to drink a melo lugmav (c. 50-55 ml) of them. One who is able to drink a melo lugmav of them may recite havdala over them.

The poskim disagree about whether a beverage must be alcoholic to be considered ĥamar medina. The lenient poskim maintain that any beverage that one would serve to important guests, and which people sometimes sit around drinking with friends, is considered a dignified beverage and may be used for havdala. Thus, one may make havdala on coffee, tea, or malt beer, as well as fresh-squeezed apple juice or orange juice. However, one should not make havdala over flavored beverages or other soft drinks, like grapefruit juice or Coca Cola, because they are not dignified beverages, merely drinks that quench one’s thirst. Some rule leniently even regarding these beverages, since one would serve them to important guests.

The stringent poskim maintain that only alcoholic beverages are considered ĥamar medina, because these are the beverages that people drink at collegial parties. Other drinks, however, are not so dignified and should not be used for havdala. According to this, one may make havdala on beer and other alcoholic beverages, but not on coffee, malt beer, or fruit juice.

In practice, one should be stringent and make havdala over alcoholic beverages only. Only if these are unavailable, then be-di’avad one may make havdala on dignified non-alcoholic beverages.^[3]

05. Besamim (Fragrance)

The Sages enacted the recitation of a berakha on smelling fragrance on Saturday night, because after Shabbat our spirits are despondent over the departure of the neshama yeteira. In order to revive them, we smell fragrance, which, according to the Sages, brings joy to the soul. Even one who does not feel pain at the departure of Shabbat will come to appreciate Shabbat’s greatness and realize that he should feel sorrow at its end, and that he should revive his soul with something aromatic.

One makes a berakha over fragrance following Shabbat, but not following Yom Tov, because on Yom Tov we are not granted a neshama yeteira. Additionally, when Yom Tov begins on Saturday night, one does not make the berakha over fragrance, because the joy of Yom Tov and its foods serve to comfort the soul (SA 491:1 and MB).

Similarly, one does not make the berakha over fragrance after Yom Kippur. Since we fast on Yom Kippur, there is no neshama yeteira, and there is not much sorrow at the conclusion of Yom Kippur (SA 624:3).

All those listening to havdala must smell the fragrance; therefore the person reciting havdala should wait until all listeners have smelled the fragrance, and only afterward continue with the berakha over fire. If the person making havdala continues to the next berakha before some listeners have a chance to smell the fragrance, they should listen to the next berakhot, and smell the fragrance afterward. One unable to smell does not make the berakha over the fragrance (SA 297:5; MB 13; SSK 61:8).

As people are generally aware, the Sages instituted different berakhot for different types of fragrance. If the fragrance comes from a tree or shrub, the berakha is “borei atzei vesamim” (“Who creates fragrant trees”). If it comes from an herb, one recites “borei isvei vesamim” (“Who creates fragrant herbs”). If the fragrance is from a fruit, one recites “ha-noten rei’aĥ tov ba-peirot” (“Who gives fruit a good scent”). If the source of the fragrance is inorganic or from an animal, one recites “borei minei vesamim” (“Who creates types of fragrance”). However, when it comes to havdala, the Ashkenazic custom is to always say “borei minei vesamim,” since most people are not experts on different types of fragrances and their respective berakhot, and if one mistakenly recites “borei isvei vesamim” over something from a tree, or “borei atzei vesamim” over an herb, he has not fulfilled his obligation. Therefore, the custom is to recite “borei minei vesamim” because, be-di’avad, it covers all fragrances. The Sephardic custom, in contrast, is to recite the berakha appropriate for the specific type of fragrance. For example, when using myrtle or rosemary, one recites “borei atzei vesamim” (MB 216:39; 297:1; Kaf Ha-ĥayim 297:31; Peninei Halakha: Berakhot 14:1, 5).

A berakha is recited over fragrances whose purpose is to give off a pleasing scent. However, no berakha is recited over fragrances whose purpose is to get rid of a bad smell, such as restroom air fresheners or deodorants (Peninei Halakha: Berakhot 14:3).

Regarding synthetic fragrances, some say that no berakha is recited, because the substance does not naturally smell good; the pleasing aroma is created by an artificial process. In practice, it seems proper that one who wishes to recite “borei minei vesamim” over it may do so, since ultimately the chemical properties that enabled the manufacture of this pleasing scent were created by God and it thus warrants a berakha (Peninei Halakha: Berakhot 14:2-3 and n. 3).

Some enhance the smelling of besamim by using the etrog that they used on Sukkot; since it was used for a mitzva, it is fitting to make a berakha on it at havdala. Cloves are stuck into the etrog to enhance its smell and preserve it (based on Rema 297:4). Since the resulting scent is the product of two types of fragrance (fruit and tree), according to all customs one recites “borei minei vesamim” over it (MB 216:39).

06. The Candle

The Sages instituted making a berakha over a candle on Saturday night, to commemorate God’s granting Adam the insight to strike two stones together to produce fire.

Ideally, one makes the berakha over an avuka (lit., “torch”), that is, a braided candle that has at least two wicks. Since its flame has two sources, its light is great. If one does not have a braided candle, he may light two matches, which can also be considered an avuka. Be-di’avad, if there is no alternative, one may recite the berakha over a candle with only one wick (SA 298:2).

The candle must be bright enough that even without an electric light, one could use it to distinguish between different coins. The custom is to ensure this by looking at the lines in one’s palm and at the base of the fingernails; this is considered a good omen (SA 298:3-4).

Those who hear havdala also need to see the candlelight. One who is standing far away should move closer so that he may benefit from the light – close enough for him to see the lines in his palm and the base of his fingernails. One who heard havdala but did not see the flame has fulfilled his obligation of havdala but has not fulfilled the mitzva to thank God for fire. It is a mitzva for him to light a candle and recite the berakha of “borei me’orei ha-esh” (MB 297:13; 298:13). If he saw the flame but was not close enough to make out the lines on his palm, he should not make the berakha again, since some maintain that he fulfilled his obligation by seeing the candle (Orĥot Ĥayim quoted by Beit Yosef 298:4; Kaf Ha-ĥayim 298:22).

Those who beautify the mitzva turn off the electric light when reciting the berakha over the candle, so that the benefit they derive from the candlelight is evident, and so that even those who are standing far away will be able to see the lines of their palms by its light (see SSK 61:33).

One may make the berakha only over a candle that was lit to provide light, not over a candle lit to honor someone or something. For example, one does not make the berakha over a yahrzeit candle or over the candles placed in front of the ĥazan in in the synagogue, because those are candles that are lit for honor, not to provide light (MB 298:30).

Some Aĥaronim made the berakha of Me’orei Ha-esh over an electric light bulb, since electricity has the status of fire. However, many maintain that one should not make the berakha over an electric bulb because it is not considered fire; fire requires oxygen, and there is no oxygen in electric bulbs, only a heated metal filament. Furthermore, even if an electric light bulb can be considered fire, one should not make the berakha over fire covered by glass. Since this berakha was established to remind us of the fire that Adam produced on Saturday night, it must be similar to that fire – open, without a glass cover.^[4]

07. The Latest Time to Make Havdala

If one did not make havdala over a kos on Saturday night, whether due to circumstances beyond his control such as a soldier on a mission, forgetfulness, or even on purpose, according to the majority of Rishonim (Rambam, Tosafot, Rosh), he may make havdala until the end of Tuesday, since the first three days of the week are linked to the previous Shabbat.

Others maintain that a missed havdala can be made up on Sunday only (Ge’onim), and there is one who maintains that even this only applies if one has not eaten anything since the end of Shabbat (Behag). There are some who defer to this opinion and make havdala on a kos only until Sunday, and only on condition that nothing was eaten on Saturday night (Ben Ish Ĥai; Kaf Ha-ĥayim 299:26).

In practice, however, most poskim maintain that one who did not make havdala Saturday night, even if he has eaten, should make havdala over wine with the berakha by the end of Tuesday (SA and Rema 299:6; MB 19). This applies to the berakhot of Ha-gafen and Ha-mavdil, but the berakhot over fragrances and fire are made only on Saturday night. For it is only on Saturday night that we need to revive the soul with the smell of the fragrances, and the berakha over fire was instituted specifically to remember the fire that Adam discovered on Saturday night. Neither of those is relevant on Sunday.

08. The Prohibition of Eating and Doing Melakha before Havdala

Just as there is a mitzva to extend the sanctity of Shabbat into Friday, there is a mitzva to extend it into Saturday night. Therefore, one must be careful not to perform any melakha until several minutes after tzeit. After that, according to Torah law one may resume melakha even without making havdala, but the Sages enacted that one may only do melakha after reciting havdala in the berakha of Ata Ĥonen in the Amida or by reciting the phrase “barukh ha-mavdil bein kodesh le-ĥol” (“blessed is the One Who distinguishes between the sacred and the mundane”). Before this recitation, one may not even perform melakhot that are rabbinically prohibited (SA 299:10).

Because of the importance of reciting havdala over a cup of wine, the Sages prohibited eating and drinking after shki’a until one makes havdala over wine. However, one may drink water then, as it is not deemed significant (SA 299:1). Other Aĥaronim maintain one may not even drink water (Kaf Ha-ĥayim 299:6).^[5]

Thus, one may only do melakha after making havdala verbally, and one may only eat or drink after making havdala over wine.

Most poskim maintain that when making a zimun at se’uda shlishit over a cup of wine, the leader of the zimun drinks from the wine after Birkat Ha-mazon. Although it is already after tzeit, drinking the wine is deemed a continuation of the meal. Just as one who began se’uda shlishit may continue eating even after shki’a and tzeit, so too one may drink the wine from the zimun (SA 299:4).

Others maintain that since people do not always insist on making a zimun over a cup of wine, the wine is not considered a direct continuation of se’uda shlishit, and therefore one may not drink it before havdala (MA, MB 299:14). Those who follow this opinion save the cup of wine from the zimun until after Ma’ariv, when they make havdala over it. If newlyweds are present at se’uda shlishit, since Sheva Berakhot are recited over the cup of wine, one also makes the berakha over the wine then. The person leading the zimun drinks from it, as do the bride and groom.^[6]

Once Shabbat has ended, one may make havdala over wine even before praying Ma’ariv (MA 489:7; MB 18). When he later prays, he should recite Ata Ĥonantanu. The one reciting havdala must remember not to drink a revi’it of wine, though. If he does so, he is considered under its influence and may not pray until the wine wears off (Peninei Halakha: Prayer 5:11).

01. The Torah’s Commandment

Cessation from all melakha^[1] on Shabbat is a positive commandment, as the Torah states: “Six days you shall do your work, but on the seventh day you shall cease” (Shemot 23:12). One who performs melakha on Shabbat not only neglects this positive commandment, but also violates a negative one, as it states: “But the seventh day is Shabbat of the Lord your God; you shall not do any melakha” (Shemot 20:9). If one was warned by witnesses not to desecrate Shabbat, yet did so anyway, he is subject to the punishment of stoning. If he desecrated Shabbat intentionally, but was not warned by witnesses, he is subject to karet (extirpation), as is written: “You shall keep Shabbat, for it is holy for you. Those who profane it shall be put to death, for whoever does melakha on it shall be extirpated (nikhreta) from among his people” (Shemot 31:14). If he desecrates Shabbat unintentionally, he is liable to bring a sin offering (MT 1:1; above 1:14).

Although it is a mitzva to desist from all melakha, the Torah mentions four melakhot explicitly: Ĥoresh, Kotzer, Mav’ir, and Hotza’ah. Ĥoresh and Kotzer are mentioned in Shemot 34:21: “For six days, work, but on the seventh day, cease. At the plowing (ĥarish) and reaping (katzir), cease.” This teaches that even activities upon which human life depends, through which man produces food, are forbidden on Shabbat (Ibn Ezra and Ramban ad loc.). Kindling a fire is also mentioned explicitly: “You shall kindle no fire (teva’aru) throughout your settlements on Shabbat” (Shemot 35:3). The Sages state that this melakha is singled out to teach us that one is subject to punishment for each individual melakha he performs on Shabbat. Thus, if one performs two melakhot unintentionally, he is obligated to bring two sin offerings (Shabbat 70a, following R. Natan; see also below 16:1). The melakha of Hotza’ah is mentioned explicitly as well: “Let everyone remain where he is; let no man leave (yetzei) his place on the seventh day” (Shemot 16:29). Hotza’ah is singled out to make it clear that even though it seems to be an insignificant activity – one merely moves an object but does not change it in any way – it is nevertheless considered a melakha (see below 21:1).

When the Torah prohibits doing melakha, it means creative work, like the melakhot performed when erecting the Mishkan (Tabernacle). Activities that do not create anything new, even if they are physically strenuous, are not prohibited. For example, carrying a needle from a reshut ha-yaĥid (private domain) to a reshut ha-rabim (public domain) is considered a melakha, while moving chairs and tables within the same domain is not (below 21:1); reheating cooked food on Shabbat is not a melakha, whereas cooking raw food on Shabbat is (below 10:2); attaching a window to its hinges is considered a melakha even if it is easy to do, whereas opening and shutting a window is not a melakha (below 15:3); reattaching a broken table leg is considered a melakha, but lengthening a table by adding a leaf designated for such use is not (below 15:7).

We derive a fundamental principle from the Mishkan. Just as the Mishkan was built with intent and planning – “to work with every skilled craft (melekhet maĥshevet)” (Shemot 35:33), so too on Shabbat, the Torah prohibits only melekhet maĥshevet. One who performs a melakha with a shinui (in an irregular manner), unintentionally, lo le-tzorekh gufah (for a different purpose; see below), non-constructively, or without meaning for it to last – has not transgressed a Torah prohibition. In all of these cases, he has not performed melekhet maĥshevet. Nevertheless, most of the above cases are rabbinically prohibited (see sections 3-8 below). The Sages state in the Mishna: “The laws of Shabbat are like mountains hanging by a hair, with few scriptural sources and numerous laws” (m. Ĥagiga 1:8). Indeed, countless laws of Shabbat are based on the melakhot of the Mishkan.

There are numerous further discussions about the shi’urim (measures) that constitute a transgression of a melakha. For example, when it comes to melakhot that relate to food preparation, if one makes a quantity of food the size of a dried fig, he is liable (if the transgression was unintentional, he is liable to bring a sin offering; if intentional, the punishment is death). If the quantity was less than that, even though he has transgressed a Torah prohibition, he is exempt from punishment. In contrast, when it comes to Ĥoresh, Zore’a, Kotzer, and Boneh, even the smallest act renders one liable. In order to keep our subject matter manageable, we will limit our discussion of what one may and may not do to matters of practical relevance.

02. The 39 Melakhot That Were Performed in the Mishkan, and Their Derivatives

The melakhot that are prohibited on Shabbat are those that were performed in erecting the Mishkan. Almost immediately following the section dealing with erecting the Mishkan, the Torah states: “Nevertheless, you must keep My Shabbatot” (Shemot 31:13). This teaches us that even though the melakha of the Mishkan was a great mitzva, it had to stop for Shabbat as well. Thus the Sages state: “One is liable only for a melakha similar to one that was done in the Mishkan” (Shabbat 49b). Similarly the Torah states: “You shall keep My Shabbatot and venerate My Mikdash (sanctuary); I am the Lord” (Vayikra 19:30). Rashi explains: “Even though I have commanded you to build the Mikdash, nevertheless you must keep My Shabbat, for the building of the Mikdash does not override Shabbat observance.”

The implication is that the primary purpose of humanity, created in God’s image, is to be a partner with God in improving the world. The primary way to improve the world is by erecting the Mishkan, where the Shekhina dwells. Light spreads from the Mishkan throughout the world, revealing that the whole world deserves to be a receptacle for the Shekhina. For the Shekhina dwells wherever one works for the sake of heaven, with honesty and kindness, in order to increase goodness in the world – it is there that the holiness of the Mishkan spreads. Thus, the essence of melakha in this world is to build an abode for the Shekhina. Yet, despite its value, we are commanded to desist from melakha on Shabbat. Just as God created the world in six days and rested on the seventh, thus imbuing the six days of creation with deep meaning, so too we are commanded to rest on Shabbat. By doing so, we are able to reveal the deeper value of all melakhot (see above 1:10).

Moshe Rabbeinu was told at Sinai that there are 39 melakhot (Shabbat 70a). These are:

1. Zore’a (sowing)
2. Ĥoresh (plowing)
3. Kotzer (reaping)
4. Me’amer (gathering)
5. Dash (threshing)
6. Zoreh (winnowing)
7. Borer (separating)
8. Toĥen (grinding)
9. Meraked (sifting)
10. Lash (kneading)
11. Ofeh (cooking/baking)
12. Gozez Tzemer (shearing wool)
13. Melaben (laundering)
14. Menapetz (combing wool)
15. Tzove’a (dyeing)
16. Toveh (spinning)
17. Meisekh (warping)
18. Oseh Shtei Batei Nirin (making two loops)
19. Oreg Shnei Ĥutin (weaving two threads)
20. Potze’a Shnei Ĥutin (separating two threads)
21. Kosheir (tying a knot)
22. Matir (untying a knot)
23. Tofer Shtei Tefirot (sewing two stitches)
24. Kore’a al Menat Litfor Shtei Tefirot (tearing in order to sew two stitches)
25. Tzad Tzvi (trapping)
26. Shoĥet (slaughtering)
27. Mafshit (skinning)
28. Mole’aĥ/Me’abed (tanning)
29. Mesartet (marking)
30. Memaĥek (smoothing)
31. Meĥatekh (cutting)
32. Kotev Shtei Otiyot (writing two letters)
33. Moĥek al Menat Likhtov Shtei Otiyot (erasing two letters in order to overwrite them)
34. Boneh (building)
35. Soter (demolishing)
36. Mekhabeh (extinguishing a fire)
37. Mav’ir (lighting a fire)
38. Makeh Be-fatish (applying the finishing touch)
39. Motzi Me-reshut Li-reshut (carrying from one domain to another)

(Shabbat 73b)

These 39 activities are called avot melakha (primary categories of melakha), or simply avot, as are activities that are very similar to them. Activities that are largely, but not entirely, similar to avot are called toladot. In practice there is no difference between an av melakha and a tolada. They both are prohibited by the Torah, and they carry the same punishment. It is simply a semantic distinction: A melakha that is very similar to an activity that was performed while erecting the Mishkan is called an av, while one that is not as similar is called a tolada (Rambam, Peirush Ha-Mishnayot on m. Shabbat 7:2).

The halakhic significance of the division of the forbidden activities on Shabbat into 39 categories relates to the realm of punishment. If one unknowingly performs all 39 melakhot, he is required to bring 39 sin offerings. If he performs five different melakhot, he is required to bring five sin offerings. However, if he performs several melakhot that are all part of the same av melakha and its toladot, he is only liable to bring one sin offering (MT 7:7-9).

03. The Rabbinic Prohibition of Performing Melakha with a Shinui or Together with Another Person

As we saw (section 1), the Torah prohibits doing melakha on Shabbat in a normal manner as the craftsmen did in the Mishkan, as it is written: “to work with every melekhet maĥshevet” (Shemot 35:33). However, if one performs the activity ki-le’aĥar yad (backhandedly), that is, with a shinui, he has not transgressed a Torah prohibition and he is therefore not subject to the punishment that the Torah prescribed for a Shabbat desecrator. Accordingly, it would seem that one may perform all the melakhot on Shabbat with a shinui. However, the Sages instituted a safeguard around the Torah and prohibited performing melakhot even with a shinui. For example, if one removes an object from a private domain to a public one in a normal manner – by carrying it in his hand or under his arm – he has transgressed a Torah commandment. However, if he carries it with a shinui – for example, with his leg, in his mouth, or on his elbow, ear, or hair – he has transgressed a rabbinic prohibition only (Shabbat 92a). Similarly, if one normally writes with his right hand only, and uses that hand to write on Shabbat, he has transgressed a Torah prohibition, whereas if he writes with his left hand, he has transgressed a rabbinic prohibition only (Shabbat 103a; below 18:2). One who cuts his nails with a pair of scissors transgresses a Torah prohibition, while if he trims them with his fingers or teeth he transgresses a rabbinic prohibition only (Shabbat 94b; below 14:2).

If two people acted in concert to perform one melakha that either one of them could have done on his own (such as holding a pen together and writing), neither person has transgressed a Torah prohibition, for it is written: “If any person from among the populace unknowingly incurs guilt by doing any of the things that by God’s commandments ought not to be done, and he realizes his guilt” (Vayikra 4:27). The Sages explain that “doing any of the things” refers only to doing the entire deed by oneself, not to doing only a part of it (Shabbat 92b). When two people perform a melakha jointly, each one is doing only part of the action. However, if they performed a melakha that neither one could have done on his own, such as moving heavy furniture from one domain to another, then they have each transgressed a Torah prohibition. If one of them is able to lift the furniture by himself but the other is unable to do so, the one who is able to carry it on his own has transgressed a Torah prohibition, while the one who helped but would not have been able to carry it on his own has transgressed a rabbinic prohibition only (MT 1:16).^[2]

The practical difference between a Torah prohibition and a rabbinic prohibition is that when in doubt about a Torah prohibition one must be stringent, while when in doubt about a rabbinic prohibition one may be lenient. Furthermore, in cases of need, when one is uncertain whether he may perform a certain action, he may perform it with a shinui. By doing so, the doubt now relates to a rabbinic prohibition, and therefore one may be lenient. (See sections 11-12 below, about the case of a shvut di-shvut [double rabbinic prohibition] when a mitzva is at stake or under pressing circumstances.)